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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
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http://www.archive.org/details/timestudyjobanalOOIich 



TIME STUDY 

i 

AND 

JOB ANALYSIS 

AS APPLIED TO STANDARDIZATION OF METHODS 
AND OPERATIONS 



By 

WILLIAM O. LICHTNER 

I! 
Consulting Engineer in Management and Construction 




NEW YORK 

THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 

1921 






Copyright, 1921, by 
The Ronald Press Company 



All Rights Reserved 



SEP 2S 



90.A627074 



PREFACE 

The aim of this book is to explain the practical application 
of Time Study and Job Analysis in simple, non-technical terms. 
Experience has shown that job standardization when properly 
tied in with planning and control affords the most effective 
preventive yet developed for industrial ills. While the tech- 
nique of the subject is here given in full detail, special emphasis 
is placed upon the relation of standardization work to problems 
of management. 

The increasing attention being given to industrial manage- 
ment by progressive executives is to be attributed only slightly 
to the ordinary processes of salesmanship and advertising. 
The responsible executive, absorbed with the concrete difficul- 
ties of the business which he has seen grow up, is naturally 
skeptical of the assistance to be rendered from any outside 
source. The industrial engineer, whether employed as consult- 
ant or as resident, has won his way because he has been able 
to sit down with the individual executive and demonstrate 
plainly and in detail just what could be done for the particular 
business in question. It has been the logic of actual perform- 
ance which has demonstrated in plant after plant that : 

i. Through the methods of time study and job analysis 
reliable assistance can be obtained. 

2. These methods constitute in no wise a magical form- 

ula, but are susceptible of cool and deliberate 
examination. 

3. The work can be done by agencies which the executive 

can command. 



iv PREFACE 

The purpose of the author has been to present in written 
form just such a plain and coherent explanation of the subject 
as might be given in a series of conferences with an executive 
charged with the responsibility of decision. 

Job standardization cannot be adopted as something 
separate and distinct. It is a part of a well-balanced develop- 
ment which must be carried throughout the entire organization. 
Education of the members of the organization is, therefore, 
one of the first things undertaken by the analyst or engineer 
who makes the time study and job analysis and it must con- 
tinue to receive attention throughout the duration of his 
services. 

Another matter which the engineer must consider, is the 
relation of job standardization to planning of the work from 
the inception of the order to the delivery of the finished prod- 
uct. Sometimes the improvement in planning precedes, some- 
times it follows the work of standardization; but in any case 
the success of standardization is closely bound up with the 
methods by which the product is routed in the factory from 
process to process. Furthermore, inasmuch as pay and condi- 
tions of work — the two great factors in the labor situation— - 
are materially improved by time study and job analysis, the 
work of standardization has proved of great importance in 
connection with labor relations. Finally, even sales policies are 
affected by job standardization. All the factors of the business, 
in short, are the concern of the engineer who undertakes job 
standardization. 

The book therefore deals with these various related subjects 
as follows : 

In Chapters I to IV, a general review is given of the prin- 
ciples of job standardization and their application to the 
methods of time study and job analysis. 

In Chapters V to VII, the organization of a staff to carry 
out the work — not merely the temporary force required for 



PREFACE v 

the period of installation but a permanent staff within the plant 
organization — is discussed in detail from the point of view 
of the executive responsible for the introduction of job stand- 
ardization. 

In Chapters VIII to XX a detailed description of the 
technique is given. This portion of the book may be used as 
a textbook and guide in an actual development of time study 
and job analysis in a particular case. In this part also emphasis 
is placed upon applications of the technique described to the 
permanent needs of the plant. 

In Chapters XXI to XXIII job standardization is consid- 
ered in its relation to industrial problems. The material here 
given will be found useful in connection with sales activity 
and with practical adjustment of labor relations. 

Portions of. the material were printed serially in Indus- 
trial Management from April to September, 1920. For valu- 
able assistance through the long period of its development the 
author is indebted to a number of friends and associates, in 
particular to : Miss Ruth S. Babson, for able and untiring 
work on the manuscript; Mrs. L. H. Marshall and Mr. Sanford 
E. Thompson for their careful reviews of the work; Messrs. 
William E. Curley, Harold M. Davis, C. A. Dieter, Edward H. 
Hansen, John D. Holmes (deceased), and William E. Stevens, 
for valuable service in the collection of data. Appreciation 
should also be expressed for the assistance of the clients whose 
names are mentioned in the text. 

William O. Lichtner. 

Boston, Massachusetts, 
August 15, 1 92 1. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter Page 

I Job Standardization in Modern Industry .... 3 

Development of Industry 

Comparison of Methods under Small-Scale Production 

Disappearance of Centralized Knowledge 

Requirements of Large-Scale Production 

Scientific Management 

The Human Element 

Co-ordination of Functions 

Specialization in Industry 

The Industrial Engineer 

Development of Industrial Engineering 

Job Standardization 

Saving of Material 

Saving of Time 

Reduction of Overhead 

Job Standardization in Industry 

Results of Job Standardization 

II Job Standardization Defined 18 

Purpose of Job Standardization 
^ Production and Costs 

Time, the Unit of Measurement 

Other Factors Affecting Production and Costs 

Material 

Equipment 

The Workman 

Quality 

Co-ordinating the Factors 

Production Factors in Shining Shoes 

Wide Applicability of Job Standardization 

III Method of Procedure 32 

The Four Phases of Analysis 
Preliminary Work 
General Survey of Field 
Taking Time Studies 
Analyzing Studies 
Formulating Standards 
Use of Equations 
Written Instructions 
Application of Standards 



viii CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

IV Results of Job Standardization 48 

The Executive's Point of Interest 
Eliminating Useless Operations 
Standardizing to Save Materials 
Rationalizing the Bonus 
Day Work and Defective Economics 
Emergency Case and Emergency Measures 

V Personnel Requirements 59 

Desirability of Trained Assistance 

Securing the Right Analyst 

Combination of Qualities 

Qualifications for Job Standardization 

Power of Analysis 

Accuracy 

Mechanical Sense 

Resourcefulness 

Initiative 

Faith 

Tenacity 

Health 

Tact 

The Analyst's Diagnosis 

College Man vs. Practical Mechanic 

Consequences of Poor Selection 

Position of the Analyst 

VI Non-Intensive Course in Training Personnel . . 74 

Developing Qualified Personnel 

Organization of Staff 

Breaking in the Novice 

Directing the Assistants 

Learning from Mistakes 

The Ten Don't Commandments 

Recent Development of Intensive Training Courses 

Period of Development 

Educating Executives 

VII Intensive Course in Training Personnel .... 83 

Advantage of Training Course 

Use of Stop-Watch 

Time-Study Board 

Time-Study Sheet 

Entering the Headings 

Recording the Elements 

Recording the Readings 

Working Up the Data 

Graphical Presentation of Time Values 

Drill in Taking Time Studies 



CONTENTS ix 

Chapter Page 

Exercises 

Points of Technique 

Reading Matter 

Using the Slide Rule 

Field Work 

Final Tabulations 

VIII Enlisting Co-operation 108 

The Analyst's Problem 

Necessity of Co-operation in Business 

Job Standardization a Co-operative Undertaking 

Preliminaries of Co-operation 

Employees and the Preliminary Campaign 

Winning the Superintendent 

Points for Superintendent 

Methods of Production 

Equitable Basis of Wage Payment 

Convincing the Foreman 

Respect for Foreman's Authority 

The Talk to Foreman 

The Foreman's Authority 

The Foreman's Knowledge of Employees 

Maintaining Quality Standards 

Quality through Standardization 

Quality by Inspection 

Final Effect on Foreman 

IX Relation of Phases in Job Standardization . . . 124 

Time Element in Analysis 
Time and the Analyst 
Need of Experienced Analyst 
Confidence in the Analyst 
"Make-Up" of the Analyst 
Variables in Standardization 
Unexpected Variables 
Infrequent Variables 
Relative Time for Four Phases 

1. Preliminary Work 

2. Taking the Times 

3. Analyzing the Studies and Setting the Standards 

4. Applying the Standards 
Results of Curtailing Required Time 

X Making the Preliminary Study 136 

Purpose of Preliminary Study 
Essentials in the Operation 
Studying the Workman 
The Skilled Employee 
Maintaining Quality 
Materials Worked Upon 



x CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

Studying Equipment 
Methods of Operating Equipment 

1. Mechanical Methods 

2. Layout of Operation 

3. Group Work 
Standardizing Machines 
Production and Earnings 
Drawbacks of Special Records 

Sample Instructions for Preliminary Study 

XI Taking the Times 153 

Systematized Analysis 

Employee and Machine 

Studying the Skilled Employee 

Gaining Employees' Good-Will 

Operation and Element Defined 

Analyzing the Operation 

Sample Analysis 

Symbolizing Operations 

Results of Imperfect Analysis 

Position of Observer with Relation to Employee 

Handling Stop-Watch 

Machines for Time Study 

Taking Time Studies 

XII Computing and Analyzing Time Values of Ele- 
ments 177 

Considering Elements Separately 
Importance of Analyzing Studies 
When to Compute Studies 
Making Extensions 
Making Tabulations 
Determining Machine Times 
Time Variations among Employees 
The Personal Equation 
Determining the Personal Equation 
Figuring to Three Decimal Places 
Instructing Less Skilled Employees 
Variations in Personal Equations 
Choosing the Right Men 
Analyzing Standard Time Values 

XIII Determining Standard Time for the Operation . 190 

Elements in Standard Time 

Average Time Values 

Abnormal Time Values 

Determining Abnormal Time Values 

Good Time Values 

Constants 

Variables 



CONTENTS xi 

Chapter Page 

Determining Standards for Variables 
Comparing Points in Curves 
Good Times as Check on Curve 
Plotting Variables 
Exterpolating Standards 
"Guess" Allowances 
Necessary vs. Unnecessary Delays 
Allowance for Necessary Delays 
Allowance for Necessities of Life 
Allowance for Fatigue 

XIV Fatigue 210 

Determining Fatigue Allowance 

Serious Import of Fatigue 

How the Employment Department Reduces Fatigue 

Mechanical Devices to Reduce Fatigue 

The Analyst's Problem 

Utilizing Mechanical Methods 

Reducing Fatigue by Instruction 

Rest Periods 

Percentage Allowance for Fatigue 

Use of the Follow-Up 

XV Checking Standard Times 218 

Testing the Standards 

Beating Standard Times 

Falling below the Standard 

Variations of Minor Importance 

Checking Standards by Time Studies 

Testing Causes of Delay 

Making Small Allowances 

Setting Temporary Standards 

Using Data to Make Needed Allowances 

XVI Deciding the Rates on the Operation ..... 228 

Explanation of Rates 

Rates — Employee and Employer 

Methods of Payment 

Fitting Payment to Operation 

Day Work 

Piecework 

Time Work with Bonus 

Figuring the Pay-Roll 

The Base Rate 

Determining Base Rate by Survey 

Bonus 

Proportion of Base to Bonus 

Company Policy Statement 

Standard Form of Statement 



Xll 



CONTENTS 



Chapter Page 

XVII Summarizing the Standards and Instructions . . 243 

Final Steps in Standardizing 

Final Form of Standards 

Instruction Cards for Operations 

Summarization of Squaring Paper 

Summarization of Laying Cloth 

Formula Method for Calculating Standard Times 

Availability of Data 

XVIII Explaining the Standards 270 

Explaining Standards to Employers 

Increase in Wages 

Decrease in Cost 

Obtaining Approval of the Management 

Notification to Departments Concerned 

Explaining Rates to Employees 

Points to be Stressed 

Explaining the Pay 

Adapting Explanations to Individuals 

XIX Applying the Standards 282 

Methodized Application of Standards 

Starting Employees Individually 

Starting Employees Simultaneously 

Instructing Employees 

Economy of Methodized Instruction 

The Instruction Engineer 

Duties of Instructor 

Foreman and Instructor 

Analyst and Instructor 

Following Up Employees 

Eliminating Unforeseen Complications 

Answering Employee's Questions 

Making Allowances for Standards 

Maintaining Standards 

Recording Delays 

Bonus Allowances 

Daily Production Record 

Completing Job Standardization 



XX Perpetuating the Standards 



296 



Establishing Routine for Perpetuating Standards 

Graphical Charts for Perpetuating Standards 

Graphical Reports 

Daily Production Record 

Daily Analysis of Machine Time 

Daily Analysis of Time Work with Bonus 

Weekly Analysis of Departmental Time 



CONTENTS xiii 

Chapter Page 

Weekly Analysis of Departmental Proficiency 
Completion of Job Standardization 

XXI Scientific Management and Increased Production 311 

Simplification of Industry 

Phases of Scientific Management 

Scientific Management Defined 

Standardization 

Installing Ford Starters 

Applying Standards to Construction Work 

Control 

Relation of Planning to Process Department 

Proper Method of Planning Orders 

Functionalization 

Co-ordination of the Phases 

XXII Balancing Manufacturing and Selling Activities 327 

Returns Dependent upon Market Outlet 
Necessity for Production Reports 
Selling the Plant Capacity 
Reports on Plant Capacity 
Method of Making Report 
Strengthening Sales Division Service 
Increasing Economy of Manufacturing 
Estimating Cost of Orders 
Determining Company Policies 

XXIII Job Standardization as a Basis for Labor Media- 
tion 337 

A "Solution" of Labor Troubles 

The Labor Situation 

The Three Necessities 

Channels of Contact 

Informal Contact 

Formal Contact 

Employee Representation Plan 

Mediation 

Defects of Customary Arbitration 

The Analyst as Mediator 

Neutrality of Analyst 

Examples of Analyst as Mediator 

Conclusion 

Appendix 

Appendix A — Reeling and Inspecting Coated Paper .... 351 

Description of Operation 

Changes in Methods and Equipment 



xiv CONTENTS 

Page 
Estimated Increase in Output 
Outline of Plan of Bonus Payments 

Appendix B — Economies Obtained in Paper-Making . . . 363 

C — Standard Requirements and Quality Bonus - 366 

D — Constructing Homes under Scientific Man- 
agement Methods 273 

E — Savings Made through Standardization of 

Pulp Manufacture 376 

Processes of Sulphite — Pulp Manufacture 
Quality of Wood 
Bonus Installation 
Bonuses in Woodroom 
Acid-Making Bonus 
Standardization of Digesters 
Reduction in Cooking Time 
Digester Bonuses 

F — Machine Rates or Method of Distributing 

Overhead Expense 382 

Signal Department 



FORMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



Figure Page 

i. Industrial Organization Chart 7 

2. Diagram Showing Reduction of Paper Waste by Job 

Standardization 12 

3. Time Ticket Analysis 13 

4. Automatic Cut-Off Machine in Use after Standardization . 15 

5. One of the Elements in Shining Shoes 27 

6. Study Sheet Showing Details of Shoe-Shining Operation . . 29 

7. Time-Study Sheet Showing Standard Times for Trimming 

Paper Stock 39 

8. Formulas for Figuring Standard Times for Blocking Cloth 41 

9. Graphic Curve Showing Time Needed to Block a Given 

Number of Garments of a Given Style 42 

10. Graphic Chart of Employees Piecework Earnings .... 46 

11. Chart Showing Details of "Opening and Laying Out" in 

Bleachery before Job Standardization 51 

12. Chart Showing Details of "Opening and Laying Out" after 

Job Standardization 52 

13. Graphic Chart Showing Comparative Weekly Production for 

Three Groups of Men before and after Methods Were 

Changed and New Bonus Started 55 

14. Analysis of Coating Operations in a Paper-Mill 57 

15. Showing the Standardized Method of Cutting Labels by 

Hand 64 

16. Single-Hand Decimal Stop- Watch 84 

17. Split-Hand Decimal Stop-Watch 85 

18. Line Drawing of a Regulation Time-Study Board .... 86 

19. Regulation Time-Study Sheet 88 

20. Regulation Final Tabulation Sheet 106 

21. Combination Wheeled Truck and Workplace 141 

22. Operation of Laying Cloth 144 

23. Chart of Symbols Used to Designate Various Products of a 

Bleachery 159 

24. Incorrect Time Curve for Wire-Stitching Calendar Backs . 161 

25. Correct Time Curve for Stitching Limber-Backed Calendars 162 

26. Correct Time Curve for Stitching Stiff-Backed Calendars . 163 

XV 



xvi FORMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 

Figure Page 

27. Correct Time Curve for Wire-Stitching Calendars .... 163 

28. Observer in a Well-Chosen Position for Taking a Time 

Study 167 

29. Observer in a Poor Position for Taking a Time Study . . . 169 

30. Electric Time-Clock with Attachment for Holding Time- 

Study Sheets 174 

31. Time-Study Sheet with Extensions 179 

32. Graphic Curve Showing Time Necessary to Walk from Eight 

to Thirty-Two Feet in Laying Cloth . 200 

33. Graphic Curve Showing Time Taken to Cut Paper Accord- 

ing to Length of Cut 201 

34. Unit Times for Pulling Cloth 203 

35. Graphic Chart Showing Method of Exterpolation .... 205 

36. Time Studies of Workmen Working Normally and under 

Pressure 219 

37. Time-Study Sheet Showing Standard Times of Elements In- 

volved in Laying Gold-Leaf on Book Covers 231 

38. Process of Hand-Cutting Lithographed Sheets 245 

39. Time-Study Sheet Showing Elements Involved in Operation 

of Splitting Lithographed Sheets 247 

40. Tabulation Sheet Showing Results of a Number of Time 

Studies 248 

41. Graphic Chart Showing Amount of Time Necessary to 

Reach for a Sheet of Lithographed Paper 249 

42. Graphic Chart Showing the Element of Cutting Litho- 

graphed Sheets 250 

43. Graphic Chart Showing the Element of Cutting Down 

Sheets 251 

44. Graphic Chart Showing Necessary Lost Time in Cutting 

Lithographed Sheets 251 

45. Tabulation Showing All Elements Plotted on a Uniform 

Basis 252 

46. Summarization of All the Elements Having Uniform Basis 

by Area of Sheet 253 

47. Table of Standard Times Taken from Figures 42 and 46 to 

Be Used by the Rate-Setter 254 

48. Instructions to the Rate-Setter in the Form of an Example 255 

49. Showing Tabulation of Additional Time Allowance for Stock 

Heavier than 75 Pounds 256 

50. Combination Instruction Card and Computation Sheet of 

Operations Used in Laying Cloth 257 

51. Graphic Chart Showing Time Necessary to Pull a Given 

Number of Feet of Cloth 259 



FORMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS xv ii 

Figure Page 

52. Showing Times Taken to Straighten Section of Cloth . . . 259 

53. Graphic Chart Showing Operation of Straightening and 

Evening Cloth 260 

54. Graphic Chart Showing Time Taken to Walk in Operation 

of Laying Cloth 261 

55. Chart Showing Summation of Laying Cloth Including Con- 

stants and Variables 262 

56. Decimal Time Dial Attached to a Regulation Clock Dial . . 278 

57. Individual Employee's Pay-Roll Sheet 280 

58. Chart Showing Comparison of Times Taken by Skilled Em- 

ployees before and after Standards Were Set with the 

Standard Time Curve 285 

59. Regulation Report on Interruptions 292 

60. Typical Pay-Roll Sheet 293 

61. Chart Showing Daily Earnings of Employees 294 

62. Graphic Chart Giving Daily Production Record 299 

63. Daily Record of Production and Machine Time 300 

64. Graphic Chart Giving Daily Analysis of Machine Time . . 303 

65. Daily Bonus Report 305 

66. Graphic Chart Showing Daily Analysis of Time Work with 

Bonus 306 

67. Weekly Analysis of Distribution of Pay-Roll 307 

68. Weekly Analysis of Departmental Proficiency 309 

69. Diagram Directions for Installing a Ford Starter . . . . 316 

70. Standardized Flan Used in the Construction of a Larger 

Concrete Bleach^ry 319 

71. Regulation Route Sheet Used in Planning Department . . 322 

72. Regulation Planning Board 324 

73. Route of Stock Orders before Analysis .... following 325 

74. Route of Stock Orders after Analysis following 325 

75. Manner of Putting Rolls of Paper into Reeling Machine . 352 

76. Special Truck for Keeping Paper Off Floor 355 

yy. Standardized Trucks on which Finished Rolls Are Placed 357 

78. Table Showing Savings Effected under Standardizing 

Bonus System 361 

79. Standard Speeds for One Grade of Paper 364 

80. Ratio Showing Decrease in Material Used and Increase in 

Output Due to Installation of Scientific Methods in a 

Pulp Mill 376 

81. Cooking Time for Wood Pulp before and after Standardiza- 

tion c ......... . 380 



Time Study and Job 

Analysis 



CHAPTER I 

JOB STANDARDIZATION IN MODERN INDUSTRY 

Development of Industry 

Modern industry has developed from the small shop. The 
small shop was usually begun and built up by one man, who 
was a workman possessing special skill and some qualities 
of leadership. With the growth of the business more men, 
more materials, more machinery, and more space became 
necessary, and these in turn necessitated more supervision and 
control than could be exercised by the individual owner. As 
long as the owner himself did the work with the aid of an ap- 
prentice or two whom he had taught, the problem of comparing 
methods did not exist, because there was only one method for 
each piece of work — the method employed and approved by 
the craftsman-owner. Each piece of work was begun and 
completed by one man. 

Comparison of Methods under Small-Scale Production 

As soon, however, as there came into the shop more men, 
who had perhaps learned the trade elsewhere and whose work 
the owner could not continuously oversee, it became evident that 
there should be some way of comparing the various methods 
so as to avoid mistakes and get the most satisfactory results. 
The greater the number of men employed, the more necessary 
it became to look about for the best methods of operation. 
While the business was still comparatively small, the owner 
could make comparisons by talking over the results with his 
workmen and by carrying on his study of methods informally; 
such a procedure was economical and was all that was 

3 



4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

necessary. In a large and growing business, however, this 
sort of management meant waste of time, materials, and 
capital. 

Disappearance of Centralized Knowledge 

The growth of his business soon obliged the craftsman- 
owner to withdraw from intimate contact with the shop into 
the increasing confinement of the office, while the transfer of 
the business to the second generation or to a wholly new set 
of owners, often absentees, completed the separation of the 
managers from the details of production. At this point the 
supervisory duties of the owner were broken up and delegated 
to superintendents and foremen, who were usually of less 
ability than the owner and in addition were not spurred on by 
the fact of personal ownership. Thus, even though the com- 
pany was committed to large-scale operations, the original 
small-scale manufacturing methods of the founder remained 
practically unchanged, with the added disadvantage that they 
were invariably carried out by less able and less interested men. 

Requirements of Large-Scale Production 

The first requirement of large-scale production is a scien- 
tific investigation of needs and methods calculated to restore 
the centralization of knowledge which disappeared along with 
the disappearance of the omniscient craftsman-owner. Through 
organized knowledge the management is enabled to set stand- 
ards suited to the needs of equipment, materials, methods, and 
quality and quantity of production. The setting up of such 
standards, with special rewards for their attainment by em- 
ployees and with the proper planning of work by a new and 
specially trained section of the management provides the 
second requirement for large-scale production, viz., co-ordina- 
tion of the efforts of all members of an organization, in the 
same way as the personal supervision of the craftsman-owner 



JOB STANDARDIZATION 5 

served to co-ordinate the efforts of the few men who worked 
immediately under his eyes. 

Scientific Management 

Carried to its most effective limit, standardization of work 
and planning thereof in accordance with the information 
obtained and the standards set, involve what has been termed 
scientific management. This term is appropriate, for it ex- 
presses briefly the idea of applying science to management. 
While it is true that management can be but relatively "scien- 
tific" — for that matter applied chemistry itself is no longer the 
pure science practiced exclusively in the laboratory — neverthe- 
less the following definition shows that the adjective is not 
wholly misapplied. 

The name scientific management is used to characterize 
that form of organization or procedure which is based on prin- 
ciples and laws established by a thorough investigation of 
manual and machine processes, materials, tools, equipment, and 
physical and psychological operating conditions ; which stand- 
ardizes operations and provides for instruction in new methods 
of execution; and which develops and maintains precise and 
automatic control, including the organization of the personnel, 
the processes, the materials, and the equipment in such func- 
tional co-operative relations as will utilize the highest technical 
skill available and capable of development in planning, super- 
vising, and executing. 

The Human Element 

The most significant fact about scientific management is 
that it involves the human as well as the mechanical element 
in an enterprise. Scientific management affects the organization 
from the chief executive down to the lowest-paid workman 
or clerk, and may be itself affected by the action of any member 
of the organization. This is the case because in analyzing 



6 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

facts the first step will always show some weaknesses in the 
system in use, and in order to cure these a change will be nec- 
essary which, large or small, will alter the routine of some 
employees. The natural impulse of almost every man is to 
resent change ; and unless all the employees are given to under- 
stand the nature of the change to be made, they will not fall 
in readily with the new routine. On the other hand, once their 
co-operation is secured they become a part of the plan. Such 
a relationship makes it possible to take the second step, and 
then the third step, and so to continue the development until 
more and more people become parties to the new arrangement. 

Co-ordination of Functions 

The development brought about by scientific management 
is in the direction of the co-ordination of functions. Every 
business may be likened to the human body. As in the case 
of the body a business may function to all outward appearances 
very well and seem to be in perfect health; and yet ever so 
often and at unexpected times troubles will arise, although 
few suspect that the cause is a weak or improperly function- 
ing member. The aim should be, therefore, to perfect each 
function independently according to its needs, yet co-ordinated 
properly with every other function. To achieve this aim is 
the purpose of scientific management. 

Perhaps the easiest way to illustrate the problem of co- 
ordinating functions is by means of a sample organization 
chart, as shown in Figure I. This chart represents a combina- 
tion of the best practices of many lines of business operating 
on scientific management principles. At the head of an organ- 
ization the board of directors, executive committee, and gen- 
eral manager direct the affairs of the company through three 
groups of activities, each one functioning through the one 
above. The activities of the first group may be designated as 
divisions, the second as departments, and the third as sections. 



JOB STANDARDIZATION 





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8 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

The time study and job analysis function is here given as a 
section of the Methods Department, of which it is the core, as 
the entire analysis of conditions and determination of stand- 
ards is handled by means of time study and job analysis under 
the one man, viz., the analyst who is head of the Methods 
Department. 

The importance of definite functions has been underesti- 
mated in small-scale methods of large-scale production. While 
many of the functions shown on the chart can in a small estab- 
lishment be combined under the direction of one man, the chief 
functions are essential to the conduct of any manufacturing 
concern. Scientific management solves the problem of their 
correlation and execution. To this end it demands that respon- 
sibility be assumed by those in authority, to whom responsibility 
belongs, and by them delegated down through proper channels, 
and thus the process is in the nature of an education and a 
development. This can only be accomplished by educating and 
developing the entire organization. 

Specialization, in Industry 

The education and development of an organization requires 
men who have specialized in the application of science to in- 
dustry. Already large-scale production has familiarized busi- 
ness with the principles of specialization. 

Centuries ago, for example, when clothing was first made, 
the maker used to grow his own wool, prepare it for weaving, 
and then make the garments. Today we find the clothing man- 
ufacturer purchasing all the materials which go into the fin- 
ished garment. He does not concern himself with the detailed 
manufacture of wool, lining, canvas, thread, buttons, and so 
on, but the manufacture of each of these items represents a 
large industry in itself. Each of these latter industries 
depends to a large degree on the clothing industry for its 
existence. 



JOB STANDARDIZATION 9 

As the industries specialize in this way, so the workmen in 
each industry specialize. Again to use the clothing industry 
as an example, it was not long ago that a clothing worker 
made almost a complete garment from start to finish. Today 
practically no industry is conducted in this way. One garment 
represents today the combined efforts of some hundred differ- 
ent people, each contributing his own special share to the manu- 
facture of the complete article. Something of the kind is 
found in every industry, whether steel, clothing, wood-work- 
ing, camera, automobile, button, or candy-making. From every 
point of view we have grown into an age of specialization. 

The Industrial Engineer 

In industry the major field for the specialist, the field of 
management, belongs to the industrial engineer. The indus- 
trial engineer interests himself in doing for complex modern 
business what the craftsman-owner used to do in a smaller but 
adequate way for his shop. He becomes intimately acquainted 
with the details of operations, methods, machines, materials, 
and equipment, and determines standards for each. These 
standards are developed by combining the technique of the 
actual process known to the management with the technique 
of management in possession of the engineer. 

Too often the function of an industrial engineer is con- 
ceived to be similar to that of, say, an illuminating engineer 
engaged to solve some definite problem of lighting. Accord- 
ing to this view the work of the industrial engineer consists 
merely in getting the facts of the situation and drawing con- 
clusions in the form of specifically limited plans which the 
executive may accept, revise, or reject to suit his ideas. While 
this plan of procedure is applicable to certain types of engineer- 
ing problems, it is impracticable in accomplishing that develop- 
ment of the organization which is fundamental to scientific 
management. 



IO TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Development of Industrial Engineering 

The history of the industrial engineer is brief. This branch 
of engineering was inaugurated by Frederick W. Taylor, not 
more than twenty-five years ago, at the Midvale Steel Com- 
pany of Philadelphia. His work proceeded chiefly along two 
lines : first, the development of tools specialized both as to 
design and material, and second, the development of standards 
of production. The results of the experiments on the cutting 
of tools revolutionized the machine and steel industries, and 
gave to all industry the present high-speed cutting tools. The 
result of the second series of experiments was the develop- 
ment of rules and principles of which the effect was yet more 
revolutionary. When tested, these principles were found to 
apply to industry of every sort, not only to factory and machine 
shop but to construction and office work as well. Their appli- 
cation was given the name of scientific management. 

Job Standardization 

The same method was used in all Dr. Taylor's researches — 
the analysis of the job through the study of time. In the 
development of tools, specialized as to design and material, 
the object is — though the fact may not at first be apparent — 
to attain better quality in a shorter time. This is no less true 
in the development of rules and principles. A study of time 
is required in order to analyze the job properly. 

A little thought will make clear to anyone that in con- 
sidering any job he always "senses" that one method of doing 
it takes longer than another, although later he may completely 
forget the time element which he actually used. 

A number of concerns today are employing many of the 
principles of job standardization without realizing that they 
are doing anything technical and without giving these princi- 
ples a formal and specific name. One of the drawbacks to 
such unconscious use of the principles of job standardization 



JOB STANDARDIZATION II 

is that the work is not consistently carried through and that 
the data and standards are not correlated to further the develop- 
ment of the business as a whole. Nevertheless changes are 
being wrought even by such casual and partial application of 
the principles of job standardization. 

Saving of Material 

In a certain factory not long ago an analyst came across 
an operation on which any workman who stopped to think 
could not help being conscious of waste resulting from the 
operating method in use. The operation in question consisted 
of cutting large rolls of gummed paper into single sheets. 
The paper was used for labels on bottles and had to be cut into 
large flat sheets 50 inches long by 40 inches wide. This cut- 
ting was done by winding the paper on a drum 50% inches 
in circumference, until 80 layers of paper had been wound. 
The 80 layers of paper when sawed through at one point pro- 
duced 80 single sheets. In laying these 80 sheets out flat on 
the table it could be seen that the sheet first wrapped on the 
drum was 50% inches while the eightieth or top sheet on the 
drum was 52*4 inches. This meant a waste of paper on every 
sheet from nothing up to i l /2 inches or an average of % of 
an inch to each sheet of paper 50% inches in length by 40 
inches in width. By changing the method of cutting the 
paper into individual sheets on what is called a rotary cutter 
or sheeter it was found that besides saving this % inch, an 
additional ^4 i ncn could be saved on every sheet. Under the 
old method an extra allowance of j4 i ncn i n the length of each 
sheet had to be made to allow for the saw's tearing the cut 
edge; under the new method this allowance was not needed. 
The difference between the amount of paper wasted before 
standardization and that wasted after standardization, as 
shown in Figure 2, meant a saving to the company of some 
$20,000.00 a year. 



12 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 




Figure 2 . Diagram Showing Reduction of Paper Waste by J ob Standardization : 

(a) Amount of paper wasted before standardization 

(b) Amount of paper wasted after standardization 



Saving of Time 

Many instances of criminal waste of time occur in offices, 
banks, and the like, but it is a waste which is usually accepted as 
unavoidable. Job standardization, though originally started 
in the factory, is equally usable in the office. It is no less im- 
portant in the office than in the factory to know whether it 
is cheaper to do work by hand or by machine. For instance, 
the making out of time tickets, manufacturing orders, and sim- 
ilar forms takes considerable time and can be reduced as 
much to a routine as any factory job. This operation was 
studied in one office, where time tickets were being written 
by hand. Analysis, as indicated in Figure 3, showed that it 
took less time to make out from one to twenty tickets by hand 
than by mechanical means, but that for a larger number of 
tickets the multigraph was speedier and more economical. 
While the figures and conclusions vary with the amount of 
information to be filled in on the particular form, such analysis 
is one that could be made with advantage in a number of 
offices. 



JOB STANDARDIZATION 13 

Reduction of Overhead 

In any factory using machinery it is economical to keep 
the machines running as nearly as possible 100 per cent of the 
time, and so to reduce the overhead. Take, for example, the 
operation of sawing lumber into definite lengths for making 
packing boxes. Certain kinds of goods require a box two feet 
long, others two feet and nine inches, others four feet, and 
so on. The customer may require five hundred two-foot 
boxes and one hundred three-foot boxes. At the Pioneer Box 
factory manufacturing so-called "wire bound" boxes, the 
boxes are made of thin veneer lumber, attached to thin wood 
cleats by means of stapling the wires on to them. Sheets 
of veneer come in long lengths which are cut by means of an 
automatic cut-off saw into the lengths required for the particu- 
lar boxes for which they are to be used. In some cases several 

Making Out Time Tickets 



By 


By 


By 


No. 


multigraph 


rubber stamp 


hand 


of tickets 


10.62 


9.14 


5-3 


10 


11.32 


10.64 


10.6 


20 


11.67 


11.41 


13-25 


25 


12.02 


12.22 


15-9 


30 


12.72 


I3-/6 


21.2 


40 


I3-42 


15-30 


26.5 


50 


14.12 


16.84 


31.8 


60 



Figure 3. Time Ticket Analysis 

lengths can be cut out of one piece of veneer, so that the 
machine is rigged up with three or four saws on the arbor in 
order at one cutting to square off the two ends and cut the 
sheet into two or three pieces. The thickness of the veneer 
varies in accordance with the use to which the boxes are to be 
put. The machine can therefore cut a number of sheets of 
veneer at one time. Thus a standard was set for veneer ji" t 



I4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

34" and y%" thick. The final result of the studies was to 
eliminate using one of the two saws which had been previously 
used the major part of the time. This not only afforded more 
floor space in the factory for other purposes of manufacturing, 
but released one of the saws for use in another plant which 
the company was erecting. The operation of sawing is shown 
in Figure 4. 

Job Standardization in Industry 

If job standardization is recognized as a fundamental busi- 
ness policy it does much more than save a few hundreds of 
dollars here and a few thousands of dollars there — it brings 
about a decrease in cost throughout the entire business. Al- 
though this is by no means the whole benefit effected by scien- 
tific management, it is that part by which the most substantial 
gains are produced both for capital and labor. Without it an 
organization can have only crude and inadequate standards. Job 
standardization develops these crude standards in such a way 
that production is increased per machine, and in consequence 
individual and unit costs are reduced. On this account job 
standardization is sometimes called the cornerstone of scien- 
tific management. 

When a concern decides to take up job standardization it 
means that men are going into the factory to make a detailed 
study of each operation in co-operation with the present staff 
of superintendent, foremen, and workmen in order to develop 
the knowledge of processes possessed by this staff and then to 
put this knowledge into concrete, usable form. This may seem 
to many, especially on first thought to the workman, a transfer 
of power and control from employees to owners, and is likely 
therefore to arouse the workman's opposition. As both sides, 
however, gain a fuller understanding of the problem of the 
management, this feeling changes from resentment to one of 
enlightenment and co-operation. It must be borne in mind, 



JOB STANDARDIZATION 



15 




x 6 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

however, that changes are always hard to make, and the hard- 
est are those which extend over a long period of time, so 
that the effort has to be made again and again. The manage- 
ment adopting job standardization as a business policy will 
find it a hard policy to live up to. It must be prepared not 
only to educate and re-educate its employees, but itself to 
adopt an attitude of willingness to learn. 

Results of Job Standardization 

The results of job standardization, however, far more than 
repay any effort involved. They are twofold : 

i. Increased production per machine or individual, of 

better quality at a lower cost. 
2. Establishment of better labor relations. 

Both these results are due to the same cause : that facts in 
the hands of the management as well as in the hands of the 
employees have replaced half -knowledge and rule of thumb 
formerly followed by the employees only. Neither result, 
moreover, can be attained unless job standardization is under- 
taken as part of scientific management. Under the new system 
the "labor question" becomes less acute, because one of the 
aspects of that problem, the amount of work the employee 
should perform, is accurately ascertained by time study and 
job analysis in determining standards of production, and so 
the atmosphere is cleared for a discussion of the second aspect, 
the amount of wages which the employee should receive for 
his work. There is hope for agreement when discussion pro- 
ceeds on a basis of facts. Moreover, wages can be larger 
without loss to the employer when the production is increased 
through better methods and through individualized instruction 
and assistance to the employee, who is no longer hampered 
by defective machinery, tools, supplies, and materials, changes 
in orders after the work is in the machine, and innumerable 



JOB STANDARDIZATION 17 

other delays common to unplanned production. Idle time is 
reduced, work and equipment are ready when wanted, mis- 
takes made are fewer, and when made the responsibility can be 
definitely fixed. This last is an especially important point, 
because under unscientific methods the blame was always dis- 
tributed and no one person in particular was really responsible. 



CHAPTER II 

JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 

Purpose of Job Standardization 

Job standardization may be defined as the method of de- 
termining and applying standards of operating in productive 
and distributive enterprises for the purpose of increasing pro- 
duction and lowering costs. In considering this definition it is 
particularly important to consider the objects in view, namely 
increase of production and reduction of costs. 

Production and Costs 

Increase of production is a phrase which conveys but a 
vague idea to many persons. The two ways to increase pro- 
duction are, first, to increase the number of working hours, 
and, secondly, to decrease the time taken to perform a certain 
operation. The first method — increasing the number of work- 
ing hours — involves too drastic a change to be other than tem- 
porary even were it advisable. The second method, however 
— decreasing the time taken to perform the operation — is prac- 
tical, sane and just. 

In some cases job standardization is looked upon as a mere 
speeding-up device, which decreases the time by driving the 
employee. This is sometimes true when the work of standard- 
ization is done by a novice, but not when it is handled by an 
experienced analyst. The analyst is interested only in results 
that are permanent; the aim of his work is to set standards 
which will not, as a rule, call for much greater exertion on 
the part of the employee. Often job standardization makes 
possible the substitution of mechanical devices for sheer brute 



JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 19 

strength, of easier ways of doing some part of the work 
through instruction, or of proper tools properly sharpened 
for the poor ones taken care of by the workman himself. For 
example, analysis of free-hand sawing of ivory nuts from 
which buttons used on clothing are made resulted in developing 
a mechanical device which gripped the nut while it was being 
sawed after it had been properly placed by hand, and thus re- 
lieved employees from the tension of constantly watching to 
protect their fingers from the saw. 

Where the work is increased after analysis, the experienced 
analyst makes a careful study of the fatigue factor so as not 
to require undue exertion from the employee. 

Increase in production, moreover, is possible with a reduc- 
tion of costs. For this reason specific mention of costs is 
made in the definition of job standardization. All the factors 
of production — material, equipment, workmen, and degree of 
quality to be attained, as well as time — are involved in the 
effort to lower costs. It is because of the failure on the part 
of many to appreciate the importance of this one fact when 
the subject of increased production is raised that the principles 
of job standardization have too often been misunderstood and 
misapplied. The notion that it is only necessary to "call 
down on the carpet" the superintendent, when costs go up, 
or the other notion that, when production goes down, every 
job of every sort should immediately be put on a piecework 
basis, must be abandoned for a more far-sighted policy, which 
includes the determination and application of standards of 
operation. 

Time, the Unit of Measurement 

The determination and application of standards imply the 
necessity of some common unit of measurement. Obviously 
the unit must be one of the factors of production. With 
different industries, however, in different localities and under 



20 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

different conditions, all the factors of production, except time, 
show a difference in character. Time is the only factor of 
production applicable to all conditions. Time, therefore, is 
used as the most convenient measure of production. It is the 
universal yardstick. Accordingly, the chief tool of job analy- 
sis is a time device — the stop-watch. The analyst studies 
the time taken to perform even the smallest part of each method 
of operating. He talks in terms of time. His conclusions 
are formulated in terms of time. 

Other Factors Affecting Production and Costs 

The choice of the factor of time as the common unit of 
measurement probably accounts for the mistaken notion that 
job standardization includes nothing more than the timing of 
work. It should always be kept in mind, therefore, that except 
to correlate all the factors of production, time may not be so 
important as emphasis would make it appear. Other factors 
affecting production and costs and, therefore, the method of 
determining and applying standards are as follows : 

1. The material from which the product is made. 

2. The equipment by which the product is made, whether 

elaborate, semi-automatic machinery, or simple hand- 
worked tools. 

3. The workmen, who are the agents of production. This 

factor, which is the most important, is the one most 
commonly neglected. 

4. The quality of the product. Even in the lowest grade 

of goods, there is a certain standard, whether it is 
clearly defined or not, below which everything is 
classed as "seconds." 

An experienced man can see almost from the start along 
what lines the greatest increase can be made at the least cost. 
All the factors of production he keeps in mind, and their par- 



JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 21 

ticular manifestations serve to modify his procedure. The 
standards he sets are not standards of time alone, but stand- 
ards of method which affect all these factors. 

Material 

Economy in the amount of material used is most important. 
It can generally be brought about by a little more care or a 
little more planning on the part of the workman. Waste of 
material is of course much harder to measure than the direct 
waste of money, as for example the money handled by a bank. 
A dollar bill has a definite value, it does not change in form, 
and must be accounted for to the last penny. If a bank 
cashier were as careless in handling dollar bills as the ordinary 
workman in handling materials the cashier would not long 
hold his job. A workman, however, may hold down a job 
for many years and annually throw away thousands of dollars 
— and yet be considered efficient. 

Workmen in shops daily handle such a large volume of 
material that they become careless and waste great amounts 
of it. For instance, in a wire mill great quantities of wire arc 
wasted in preparing and weaving it. In construction work 
carpenters waste large quantities of lumber by carelessly pick- 
ing up any piece that is longer than they require. This means 
a great many short ends which are practically wasted. Exam- 
ples of this kind occur day in and day out because the workmen 
do not realize the vast amount of money lost. It is astound- 
ing to the engineer, in going from plant to plant, to find this 
identical factor of ruthless waste appearing in varying degrees 
everywhere. Great savings are possible and with no expense at 
all simply by seeing to it that the workmen exercise a little care. 

In some shoe factories this problem of saving material 
has been studied, and a plan has been devised whereby the pay 
of a cutter is based, not on the speed with which he cuts, but 
on the amount of leather he saves. Such an arrangement can 



22 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

be made because the cost of a shoe is influenced more by the 
price of leather than by the price of labor. Similarly in making 
leather garments, the cutters could do from 20 per cent to 25 
per cent more work if they did not have to conserve material, 
but since the cost of labor on cutting leather garments — such 
as a leather overcoat — is only 10 per cent of the cost of the 
material, it means a minimum cost of production for them to 
work slowly enough to use the minimum of material. The 
expense of the material and its proportion to the total cost are 
matters for careful consideration. In some cases special in- 
vestigation is required to determine exact standards for the 

amount of material to be used for each order. 

• 

Equipment 

Improvement in equipment brings large returns, which 
generally require little or no extra effort on the part of the 
employee. Usually, however, they do involve an expenditure 
of money on the part of the management, and great care should 
be exercised in making recommendations for the purchase of 
new equipment. Too often very simple changes in machinery 
cost considerable money. Since changes which at first look 
small sometimes necessitate a good deal of experimenting, it 
is better, as a general rule, to put the present equipment into 
first-class order and utilize it for daily manufacturing purposes 
while some one machine is being experimented upon and fully 
developed. The answer to the question as to whether a change 
in machinery pays is necessarily phrased in terms of - time 
saved. Nevertheless, the quality factor cannot be overlooked 
in giving the answer, since the machine is sometimes less able 
to adapt itself to individual variations than is the hand con- 
trolled by the brain of the craftsman. The human element, too, 
enters into the answer. 

There is a popular saying that "necessity is the mother 
of invention." In manufacturing, inventions have often re- 



JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 23 

suited from the pressure of competition. But the necessity 
which has done the most to bring about the invention of 
machinery has been the high price of what used to be called 
"cheap labor." The writer recalls an instance in which a work- 
man found that he had an exceptional abhorrence of monot- 
onous, physical work. This workman, therefore, devised an 
attachment which automatically stopped the machine when any- 
thing went wrong or rang a bell when the finishing point was 
reached. This bell he wired out to the engine room where, as 
the work was progressing, he sat and peacefully smoked his 
pipe. After he had made a number of inventions, the com- 
pany discovered that whenever he was placed on work which 
was particularly difficult or monotonous, he would work out 
some means of overcoming the monotony so that he could 
rest and smoke. They, accordingly, placed him on jobs where 
improvements in the machinery were desired. Thus his inge- 
nuity was directed to their mutual benefit. 

The Workman 

The workman is a factor of which much has been lately 
written. There is a great deal of talk about the psychology 
of the workman, as if there were some special brand of psy- 
chology which applied to a human being who was in overalls, 
and did not apply to a human being who worked where he 
could have clean hands and a white collar and act as an office 
attache or executive. It is well to keep in mind the fact that 
each human being sees the advantages he wants or needs from 
points of view that depend upon whether he is an executive, 
a full-fledged artisan, or an unskilled workman. It is no more 
of a mistake for the analyst to approach an executive from the 
standpoint of an illiterate workman than it is to talk financing 
and management to this same illiterate workman. 

In planning the campaign, in talking to the men, in laying 
down methods for them to follow, in giving them incentives 



24 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

to practice the methods introduced, the man carrying on job 
standardization should always appreciate the limitations — and, 
even more, the possibilities — of the human material. 

The class of men performing the operation — whether 
they are American or foreign-speaking, whether they are 
quick to grasp a point or slow of wit, whether they feel kindly 
or the reverse toward the management — all these things have 
an effect on the methods followed. Neither the physical nor 
the mental demands should be made too great under new 
standards. 

The question of physical demands is a matter of fatigue 
study. The factor of fatigue naturally enters to a greater or 
less extent into all work, in fact, into everything we do. The 
method of job standardization includes the transfer to other 
jobs of employees not fitted to the work they are doing, on the 
basis that each operation imposes distinct physical and mental 
demands and that it is no more right for the clerk to strain 
himself physically trying to do the blacksmith's job than it is 
for the blacksmith to undergo the mental strain of the clerk. 
Proper and reasonable standards are set for each class of work, 
which will make it possible for a workman to keep at his work 
year in and year out without any danger of prematurely short- 
ening his life. Although there are certain types of work which 
are very heavy or require very close application, on the major- 
ity of shop operations the machine does the major part of 
the work. With operations of this type the question of fatigue 
is not of so much moment as when purely manual or mental 
effort is involved. The allowance for fatigue can be deter- 
mined from time studies upon which the standards have been 
based. With heavy work or machine work requiring great 
activity, special fatigue studies are essential. 1 

The nature of the incentive to do the work in a standard 
time varies with the mental make-up of the men. It should 

1 For a discussion of fatigue see Chapter XIV. 



JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 25 

not lead them to overdo, a tendency which can be further pre- 
vented by supervising their work. Piece rates, premium plans 
and so on are often makeshifts, as anyone who has had any- 
thing to do with them realizes. When not adapted to the 
situation they are sometimes even the cause of labor troubles. 
The only similarity which exists between any of these methods 
and job standardization is the desire to measure the output 
and to make the pay commensurate with its quality and 
quantity. 

Quality 

In the majority of operations the quality factor is one of 
the most important, for every product must have some quality 
standards. Practically without exception no company has any 
absolute standards for quality, but the standards vary more or 
less with the whims of the customer, the salesmen, and often 
the executives. Accordingly the first result of job standard- 
ization is to determine a definite standard of quality. 

When job standardization is started there is always a move- 
ment on the company's part to stress the quality factor, using 
it as an excuse for low production. Nevertheless it can be 
stated as a general fact that the quality is better after job 
standardization than before, because of the closer attention 
given by the workman when he is on an accurately calculated 
incentive basis, and because of closer supervision of the work- 
men and of the materials. 

Broadly speaking, "quality tempers quantity." In other 
words, as the quality factor becomes greater the quantity be- 
comes less, not in direct proportion but proportionally less in 
relation to each operation. An exception to this rule was noted 
on a job in Toronto, Canada, where a sewing operation done 
by machine was unsatisfactory because the stitches did not 
hold, although the machines were operating at the speed and 
tension designated by the machine manufacturers. The com- 



26 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

pany had about decided to do the work by hand when another 
clothing manufacturer who happened to visit the plant was told 
of the trouble. He saw that the machines used a very small 
drive pulley and stated that at his plant they used one twice 
as large. A pulley double the size was ordered from the stock 
room and put on the machine, of course doubling its speed. 
The workman then tried the machine and to everyone's sur- 
prise it turned out a stitch of first-class quality. The speed 
of the machine caused just the right tension. This is but one 
case in which greatly improved quality was obtained without 
decrease in quantity. 

Co-ordinating the Factors 

The way in which all these factors of production and costs 
have to be tied together and considered simultaneously with the 
time factor can best be illustrated by taking a specific example. 
To find a good example, however, is not easy because the 
reader should visualize without effort the details connected with 
it, and he cannot do this if the operation requires technical 
or special knowledge. Even in giving talks before employees 
in their own factory the difficulty of choosing a particular 
operation with which all the employees are familiar is apparent. 
Since few persons are perfectly familiar with the details of any 
job but their own, and since, moreover, few have the ability 
to picture mentally an operation which they have seen but not 
actually performed, most persons are likely to miss the signifi- 
cant points of an example. Some time ago a certain man, 
more ingenious than others, hit upon the idea of describing a 
job which was not inside of the factory or office but one 
nevertheless with which everyone was familiar — shining shoes 
in the ordinary shoe-shining parlor. The success of this ex- 
ample was so marked that it has been chosen as the one to 
illustrate the application of the elements of job standardization. 
The operation of shining shoes is shown in Figure 5. 



JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 



27 




Figure 5. One of the Elements in Shining Shoes 



28 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

The average man's idea of standardizing shoe-shining 
would be to go into a parlor and with the permission of the 
"boss" take a great many time studies, such as the detailed 
study shown in Figure 6, of the amount of time taken by each 
part of the operation. These amounts could then be compared 
with a view to finding what seemed a reasonable time for 
each part, considering in a general way the standards ex- 
pected. If the observer had enough common sense, he would 
take a few additional studies to make sure that the amounts 
really were reasonable before he asked the boss to teach the 
men how to use the methods the best men studied were using 
and to leave out unnecessary motions. Finally, he would tell 
the men that if they polished a pair of shoes well in the time 
set they would be paid more money. Although this method 
is common, it requires a long time to get results. When ob- 
tained, moreover, the results are unsatisfactory because they are 
not based on clearly defined standards. A general routine of 
procedure is being followed without clear understanding of 
the objective or of the relation of the objective to the factors 
involved in shining shoes. 

Production Factors in Shining Shoes 

The object in studying shoe-shining is to find the best 
method of shining each type of shoe — black, tan, calf, kid and 
so on — so that this method can be made the standard 
The first general estimate involves the relative importance 
of the various factors making up the method of operating. 
An estimate in this case is especially easy because shoe-shin- 
ing is an isolated operation, without relation to other opera- 
tions, whereas in an office or a factory the place of the 
particular operation in the process as a whole effects the plan 
of action. 

In the case of shoe-shining the customers are always in ? 
hurry, and it is greatly to the advantage of the shop to give 



JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 



29 



























































Time 8:00 to 8:U No. Study 1 File 


Observer C.Dieter Date 00/21 


Operation Shining Shoes 


Department Shoe Shining 


Sy 


Read 


Ex 


tn 

-Si 


Sy 


Read Ex 


% 


SyReac 




A %ls, 


Head Ex j*% ( 


Location 3rd Chair 




0.00 






j 


38.72)0.47 


5.32 


















Employee h. Blank Rate so^ hr. 


" 


0.20 

0.70 


20 
0.50 




b 


88.99^0.27 
39.29. 30 




















Implements Cleaning Cloth, drying cloth. 


« 


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c 


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0.71 




















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d 


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Materials Cleaner and Black Polish 


f 


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ost 




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Conditions and Remarks 


9 


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1 


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d *\ 11 


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9 


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h 


27 56 71 




























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i 


2777\0.21 




























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Q Polish with brush 










J 


28.17 
28.39 


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j Brush clothes 










6 


2889'0.50 
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29.72 0.23 




















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1 










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1 


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Figure 6. Study Sheet Showing Details of Shoe-Shining Operation 



3 o TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

instant and rapid service. In order to set a standard of time 
required to shine a pair of shoes of a given type — which will 
serve the purpose of showing how many bootblacks should be 
on hand and make it unnecessary for a customer to wait even 
at rush hours, as well as to measure each bootblack's ability 
— the observer will take time studies of the way in which the 
best bootblacks do the work. While he is taking the time 
studies and setting the time standards, he will note the require- 
ments limiting the time taken — the materials, the apparatus, 
the man himself, and the quality. 

The desired shine is obtained more by applying "elbow 
grease" than by applying paste. Some employees apply two 
or three times as much paste as others, with no better results. 
By determining the number of applications necessary the waste 
of both material and time can be reduced to a minimum. 

In many shops the shoes are dried by being fanned with a 
cardboard fan, which takes considerable time. An electric 
blower shortens the time on this element of the work, reducing 
the total time for shining shoes correspondingly. If tests show 
that the time saved by installing a blower would pay for the 
expense it should be recommended. Otherwise, the shoes 
should continue to be dried by a cardboard fan and sufficient 
time allowed for this. 

One way of improving both quality and speed without' 
introducing mechanical changes is to cut a two inch strip of 
cardboard and place this carefully in the top of a shoe so as 
to protect the customer's hose from becoming soiled when 
applying the liquid, paste, brushes and cloths. 

Shining shoes is not easy work. While dull hours some- 
times provide all the rest needed, it is probable that some 
allowance in setting time standards must be made for fatigue. 
This will be especially true if the work is done by boys. 

The factor most seriously affecting time required is the 
quality, or the amount of shine desired. No matter how great 



JOB STANDARDIZATION DEFINED 31 

the haste of the customer, he is always "fussy." The degree 
of brilliance desired should be carefully determined and im- 
pressed on the bootblacks. In order to eliminate the tendency 
of the bootblacks to slight the work, the "boss" will be obliged 
at intervals to check up the work by noting the feet of cus- 
tomers going out. 

During the entire analysis the methods adopted, the ways 
of maintaining quality, the amount of rest and all the factors 
included in the standards should be adapted to the type of 
bootblacks employed. 

The result of the analysis will be that each pair of shoes 
will be better polished and with less labor and material, and 
that more satisfied customers can be accommodated even at 
rush hours because the shoes are polished in a shorter time. 

Wide Applicability of Job Standardization 

The details of the way in which job standardization is con- 
ducted and standards of operating determined and applied, vary 
with the complexity of the operation under observation. The 
shoe-shining illustration is about as simple as could be found. 
At the other extreme is repair work in a machine shop. Never- 
theless, in spite of the wide range in the complexity of the 
problems, the same factors are involved — material, equipment, 
workman, quality — and time is always the measure by which 
standards are determined. For both operations, job standard- 
ization is the method to increase unit production and lower 
unit costs. 



CHAPTER III 

METHOD OF PROCEDURE 

The Four Phases of Analysis 

The processes of analysis described in the last chapter are 
carried through in a more or less definite order, and fall, in a 
general way, into four divisions. The transition from one 
phase to another is so gradual, however, that one usually some- 
what overlaps the other. Quite often it is necessary to go back 
from a later phase to an earlier for verification or correction. 
At the end of the study, for instance, after the standards have 
been set, the analyst may find it a wise precaution to check 
his standards by an all-day time study. 

The four phases of job standardization are : 

i. Preliminary work 

2. Taking time studies m 

3. Analyzing studies and setting standards 

4. Applying standards 

The first phase, that of "preliminary work," gives the 
analyst a bird's-eye view of the field he is to enter and the 
workmen with whom he is to deal. There is some way best 
adapted to each situation, by which the right kind of start can 
be made. On the very first operation studied the preliminary 
work requires considerable time, for it is necessary not only 
to make a survey of the particular operation which is to be 
under observation but of all the preceding operations, except 
of course in the case of the initial operation, and also of some 
of the subsequent operations. Moreover, before undertaking 
detail time study, the analyst instructs the members of the 
organization in its purpose. As the analyst becomes acquainted 
with the departmental requirements and as the members of the 

32 



METHOD OF PROCEDURE 



33 



organization see that the work is as much to their advantage 
as to that of the company, the preliminary work on each opera- 
tion takes less time. 

The second phase, that of "taking time studies," is one 
commonly thought of when the subject of job standardization 
is discussed. The first step in any analysis is to get a record 
of what is being done. In order that the record may be used 
for purposes of comparison this means, in industry, that the 
time element must be recorded, since time is a very important 
factor in production. To the casual observer "taking the 
times" seems to be exceedingly simple. It is only necessary, 
however, for him to try his hand at the seemingly simple task 
to realize the skill required to take the detailed times of a very 
simple operation. 

The third phase, that of "analyzing the studies and setting 
the standards," requires experience and special training. Any- 
one can work up the time values and set a so-called standard, 
but unless the standard is developed so as to consider the human 
as well as the mechanical factors in such a way as to allow 
an employee to perform the work with a minimum of energy 
and a minimum of material in the minimum time, the standard 
is not correct and will do more harm than good. 

The fourth phase, namely that of "applying the standards," 
is the one which proves how well the other three phases have 
been handled. The standards both of method and time must 
be put into effect in such a way that they are easily assimilated 
by the organization. It is not until the employees are accom- 
plishing the work according to the standards set that the case 
is established to everybody's satisfaction. The proof of the 
pudding is in the eating. When a man gets a taste of some- 
thing good he wants more and passes the word to all his co- 
workers so that they also begin to want it. This is the result 
found in all plants when the work of the analyst has been 
properly performed. 



34 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

A comprehensive idea of the field covered by job standard- 
ization can be given by outlining the method of procedure to 
be followed in each phase. 

Preliminary Work 

In adopting any new policy the human reaction to it should 
be taken into account ; otherwise the policy will be a dead thing, 
merely a matter of forms and routine. This result would be 
especially unfortunate in job standardization, because the mem- 
bers of the organization where the studies are to be made are 
the people who not only can and must assist in its introduction, 
but who also must be relied upon to maintain it. 

The analyst working in the factory is necessarily con- 
cerned with the speeds of the machines, the equipment, and the 
materials used, in order that he may be able to determine 
the effect of each. He should get from the superintendent the 
authority to have the foreman see that conditions are changed 
in accordance with the tests laid out by the analyst. The 
superintendent should see that the foreman fully understands 
his authority to co-operate with the analyst. It is important 
that the support of the foreman be gained, and to this end the 
analyst should explain to him the method of job standardiza- 
tion and what it will accomplish. The analyst should convince 
the foreman that he will be kept constantly informed of what 
is being done so that he can continue to direct his organization 
intelligently and obtain its full co-operation. 

General Survey of Field 

The other part of the preliminary work concerns the 
problems involved in the particular operation. The man who 
is introducing the work must gather together all available 
data on the subject in order to have a general knowledge of 
the situation as it is then and there and its possible future 
improvement. A general survey is made of the department to 



METHOD OF PROCEDURE 35 

learn : present methods, stock of materials and their condition, 
number and types of machines and, in addition, cost records 
on the operation, including records of production, rates of 
wages, and number of employees. All this information is 
essential for the purpose of comparing present with final pro- 
duction and costs. 

All the operations in the room are related to each other in 
some way and no single one can be considered independently 
of the others. The consideration of the situation as a whole 
and of the general features of the operation takes a varying 
length of time. If the department is large and there are a 
great many operations, or if the work is laid out so poorly 
that large changes are necessary, the survey will take a long 
time. In other cases it may be possible to do all this work 
mentally without making any records. 

The preliminary survey may suggest changes in the ma- 
chines, their locations, mechanical parts, or speeds; the ad- 
visability of preparing more carefully the materials, or of pack- 
ing and delivering them so that they can be handled easily; or 
changes in the method itself. Much careful study should be 
given the possible changes, backed up, when necessary, by 
tests. The changes, however, should not be made until after 
the detailed studies to be made later have proved their efficiency. 
The analysis should be worked out to a point where the out- 
lines of the final result are clear before any suggested changes 
are recommended for final adoption. 

Taking Time Studies 

Having made the preliminary survey the analyst is now 
ready to enter upon the second phase, taking the time studies. 
The preliminary survey has made it possible to lay out a pro- 
gram which will accomplish the work in the shortest time and 
will secure a responsive attitude on the part of the working 
force. 



36 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Equipment needed in making time studies consists of a 
decimal stop-watch with a large hand to indicate the fractions 
of minutes — preferably by hundredths — and a small hand to 
indicate the minutes; a standard form of time-study sheet; a 
clip board for holding time-study sheets and watch; a hand 
tally; and a speed indicator. 

In order to learn the elements, several studies should be 
made. Delays in the various operations, such as "waiting for 
material," "waiting for tools" and "machine broken down," 
occur over and over again without any steps being taken to 
correct them. It is these short, constantly recurring delays, 
ordinarily unobserved, that are the most common causes of 
low production. Time studies definitely point these out, and 
steps should be taken immediately to eliminate them. 

In considering which employees should be studied, the fore- 
man should be consulted. It is best during the first observa- 
tion of the employees and their qualifications as quality or 
quantity producers, to note what standards of quality have been 
maintained. The quality standards must be definitely set and 
used as the basis for all further development. 

Detail studies of an operation are made for the purpose 
of determining the best method of operating. Each operation 
breaks up naturally into a number of distinct divisions and 
subdivisions, corresponding in a general way to the individual 
motions and having definite points of starting and stopping. 
These divisions are called "elements." The elements, for in- 
stance, of the operation of shoe-shining, which has been used 
as an illustration, are : 

(a) Rub off dust. 

(b) Apply cleaner. 

(c) Remove cleaner. 

(d) Apply polish first time. 

(e) Polish with brush. 

(f) Apply polish second time. 



METHOD OF PROCEDURE 37 

(g) Polish with brush. 

(h) Polish with cloth. 

(i) Brush clothes. 

(j) Make change (take money) 

In making the time study the analyst watches the operation 
performed, noting on his sheet each element and reading the 
time of his watch at the moment the element is completed. 
Later in the office he is able to find the time actually taken by 
each element. 

In order to facilitate the recording of the watch readings 
in making "detail studies" each element should be given a letter 
or symbol by which it can be identified. The letter "c," for 
instance, can be jotted down in a second instead of the sentence 
"remove cleaner" each time the shoe shiner performs this 
element in his shoe-shining operation, and similarly "h" could 
be used to symbolize "polish with cloth," "i" for "brush cus- 
tomer's clothes," etc. In the illustration the elements were 
given a symbol in alphabetical order as they were performed. 
Another method commonly used for symbolizing elements is 
to make the symbol mnemonic. With this method the symbol 
"r" would stand for "rub off dust," "ac" for "apply cleaner/' 
etc. This latter method has been found to be more flexible 
than using the letters of the alphabet in sequence, because no 
matter in what sequence the workman may do his work, the 
analyst will be able instantly and without exertion to follow 
the work element by element and record all information in the 
time-study sheet which may be needed later in working up 
the standard times. 

Analyzing Studies 

Preliminary work and taking the studies in the factory 
prepare the ground and furnish the material with which to 
build. The next step is to construct something tangible out 
of what up to this point has been a conglomerate mass. Here 



38 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

the work falls into three divisions : determining the standards, 
codifying them, and incorporating them into instructions. 

In determining the standards the studies which have been 
taken must be worked up into such a shape that the time of 
similar elements can be compared, tabulated and averaged. 
There will also be a record of unnecessary delays and some 
necessary delays which occurred during the operation. By 
means of the notes recorded opposite the delays and the fre- 
quency with which they occur it is possible to determine what 
unnecessary delays, such as loafing, should be eliminated, and 
to allow for necessary delays, such as "tightening the tension 
on a sewing machine," because delays of this sort will occur 
so long as human beings are required to do the work. 

Formulating Standards 

The standards are formulated in terms of time, because, 
as stated before, time is the yardstick by which to measure 
the effectuality of each element and operation. The standard 
time is that time which the employee can fulfil day in and 
day out without injury to health of mind or body, and there- 
fore the analyst who sets this time should have well-balanced 
judgment, good technical understanding, and a knowledge of 
the effect of fatigue upon performance. 

The standard time should first be found separately for each 
element. Some engineers use a set method of determining the 
standard time; but the standard time should not necessarily 
be an average, nor the unit times recurring oftenest in the 
better performances, nor an average of means after elimination 
of the high and low extremes ; rather it should be a combina- 
tion of these, governed by conditions. To the sum of the stand- 
ard times for each element are added the proper allowances 
as determined for necessary delays, rest, and fatigue. The total 
constitutes the standard time of an operation. Figure 7 gives 
a chart of standard times for trimming paper stock. 



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39 



4 o TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

In some cases the standard time may be shorter than that 
within which the work was previously performed by any one 
workman, because of the fact that one employee is faster on 
one element of an operation while on another element a second 
employee, by the use of slightly different methods, is faster, 
and these two times have been combined in the standard time. 
For instance, job standardization on the operation of sewing 
buttons on men's garments showed that a couple of workmen 
who were turning out about the same number of garments 
of the same quality were using different methods. Workman 
A was found to be very fast in all the elements excepting the 
actual sewing on of the buttons, while workman B was found 
to be very fast on the sewing and slow in the other elements. 
The analyst showed further that workman A used a double 
thread and made more than double the number of stitches that 
workman B made and at a slower rate per stitch. Workman 
B, on the other hand, used a quadruple thread, made less than 
half the stitches of workman A and took each stitch faster 
than workman A. The standard, therefore, was set by using 
workman A's element for all but the sewing, and workman 
B's element for sewing. By getting B to teach A the use of 
a quadruple thread and A to teach B how to do the other ele- 
ments in a better way it was possible for both A and B to 
increase their production without any greater effort. 

Use of Equations 

The standards which are developed for an equation should 
be worked up into as simple a form as possible, so as to re- 
quire the minimum of work to determine the time of the opera- 
tion for any particular condition, quantity or specification. 
Sometimes this codification of standards requires considerable 
study. 

In a few rare cases it has been found that at first it took 
almost as long to figure the time allowed for a given order 



METHOD OF PROCEDURE 



41 



as actually to do the work. In the operation of "blocking 
cloth," for example, a formula was developed which filled 
the requirements. This formula appeared complicated to those 
not familiar with the particular line of work under considera- 
tion, but aside from the time taken to use the formula in 
figuring the job it was in reality quite simple. The formula 
was later reduced to the form given in Figure 8. The figuring 

Explanation of Symbols 

c — constants per section. For lays on the fold c = o 

cji — constants per cut per piece 

c 3 — constants per cut per part 

c. — constants per cut for dividing and blocking exact 

c 5 — pin facing constants 

g — number of garments 

L ■ — number of layers 

n — total parts in any piece 

p — number of pieces 

s — time for style value for each part 

T — total time 

u • — ■ pin facing time per layer 

v — time required to obtain (shake) and even each layer of each piece 

W ■ — variables per cut, per part. For parts marked i cut, w = o 

y — number of sections. For Blocking on the Open, y = 2; except for F to O pes. when y = 1 

Determination of L 

4 size lays on the open, L = - 2 size lays on the fold, L = - 

2 L = g 1 " " " " " L = g 

1 " " ' L = g 

Determination of Height of Section for Pieces Blocked on Fold • 

1. Lays of 2 or more sizes on open. Height of sec. = — , when y is an even number. 

2. One size lays on open. Height of section = -, for any value of y. 

3. Lays on fold — pieces laid on fold. Height of sec. = — , for any value of y. 

4. Lays on fold — pieces laid on open. Height of sec. = — , when y is an even number. 

Formula I — Blocking Pieces Not Cut Exact 

r f n (s, + . . . + sp) \ . _ (vi + . . . + v P ) 1 

T = p y I Ci A > + L h c 2 + u (c 3 + wL) I 

[ ( n (s, + P . . . + sp)1 (v r + P . . + v P ) , I 

= P y S 0.001 -\ > + L + 0.022 + n (0.009 + 0.0006L-, 

Figure 8. Formulas for Figuring Standard Times for Blocking Cloth 

of the jobs was further simplified by drawing a curve, as 
given in Figure 9, for each style of garment that was to be 



42 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 







8 


16 


24 


32 


40 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


88 


96 


104 


112 


120 




4.0 
























N 


umbe 


r o 


fC 


Jar 


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d.5 








































































































































































































































































3.0 










































• 
































































! 






























































































































































>> 






























































>> 

J' 

-01- 
N 

w- 

1 


2.6 


M 






























































1 

8" 






























/ 






























































/ 






























































































-fi- 
ll 

s- 
































































2.0 


01 














































































































































• 












































m. 

P 

w 

c 

-s 






























































en 

3 




















/ 












































1.5 
















/ 














































ffl 






























































.s 
































































01 

F 










,<\* 


V 




















































H 










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-y 






























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1.0 

.90 
.80 
.70 
.60 
.50 
.40 
.30 
.20 

ao 






































< 






























































b* 




























































,<f 




























































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Stj 


le 1741 D-Class 


2Meii Left'front No 


1 (cul 


8r 


igh) Upf 


er 


bac 


k( 


:ut 


10 


iig 


a) 


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rt 


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Right & Left Front 


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Lower Bj 


ck 

.03 

00." 
003 


'-- 
J s 
*8 


"op tol 


ar& 




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Fro 


nt 


Skt. Fj-on 


Sk 



. Back 
.032 


2 Singles 
2 Smglfes- 
2 Singles 


.0026 2 

10026 2 

1.0028 


Sin 
Sin 


gles .0076 
jles-0076 


i Si 
2 Si 


iglc 
ngli 




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Sin 


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jlea 


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0.0040 


2 Si 
2-Si 


ngl 

ngl 


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001 


2 

22 
2 


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I: 


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001 
001C 


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,2 r 


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101 


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2 Si-s0099 




ngies 


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•°r 






bfi% 


u 


< 


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umber of ? Gar 


merits *f 


















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16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 



96 104 112 120 



4.0 



3.5 



3.0 



2.E 



2.0 



1.5 



Figure 9. 



Graphic Curve Showing Time Needed to Block a Given Number 
of Garments of a Given Style 



METHOD OF PROCEDURE 



43 



manufactured in quantity. The time required to establish a 
curve is considerable, but once made it is good for an entire 
season. During the past season about 75 per cent of the jobs 
to be figured were taken from the curve; the remaining 25 
per cent were special jobs requiring the use of the formulas. 

In general, it is better to put the final standards into tabu- 
lar form rather than curves. On operations having a large 
number of variables, however, it is found to be good practice 
to use curves. 

Written Instructions 

Standards will not remain standard very long unless written 
instructions are drawn up covering every factor in detail. 
There are two reasons for putting instructions in writing : 
the first is that while two people with different conceptions 
may believe that they are absolutely in accord so long as they 
are talking together, they will see at once their points of differ- 
ence if one of them puts his conception into writing; the 
second reason is that ideas change unconsciously, and without 
written instructions the original idea may be lost and the 
standard relaxed. 

The written instructions should be of two sorts, general 
and detailed. 

General instructions should include such points as the 
capabilities of the machine, speeds at which the machine is 
to be run under each varying condition, equipment necessary, 
relation of the work of a particular employee to that of some 
other employee or move-man, placing the equipment in a con- 
venient place, or the storing of machine parts in proper racks. 

Detailed instructions should cover the exact method of 
operation. It is evident that when a definite, carefully planned 
method has been worked out on which the standard times 
are based, the employee should use this method. Skilled work- 
men, however, frequently vary in the manner of doing certain 



44 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

elements of an operation, and if they can accomplish the task 
within the standard time, without using up unnecessary energy, 
little is to be gained by insisting on their following exactly the 
standard practice. Moreover, should the workmen fail to 
perform the operation within the standard time, they should 
be instructed in the standard method, and thereafter be required 
always to follow it. These instructions are also of value to 
the management since they describe the method in use when 
the standard times are set. 

Application of Standards 

The work of job standardization cannot be considered com- 
plete until the standards are actually put into effect. This 
is one phase which is not taken into account by many workers 
on job standardization, who are apt. to consider their work 
finished when they have established the standards. This neg- 
lect is chiefly due to the fact that they are accustomed to having 
piecework rates based on average conditions set by superin- 
tendents and foremen, and to having adjustments made up or 
down, depending on whether the employees strike because the 
rates are too stiff or whether they earn more money than they 
were expected to earn. Standards established through job 
standardization are exact, and are accompanied by a guarantee 
that they will not be changed unless there is a definite change 
in equipment or method. 

The standard which has been determined as correct is often 
different from the one by which the employees have been doing 
the work. In these cases it is easy to see why it is necessary 
to have an instructor demonstrate to them the best way. In 
operations where no big change has been made the necessity 
of having someone on hand when an employee starts working 
on the new rates is not so evident. Years of experience, how- 
ever, have shown that such a precaution is desirable. Ordi- 
narily even on piecework the amount done by the various em- 



METHOD OF PROCEDURE 45 

ployees varies enormously, due to the use of different methods, 
uneven supply of work or of materials, loafing, lack of ability, 
or lack of interest and belief in the management's good faith. 
Job standardization can reduce the irregularities in production 
by attacking the causes and by starting the standards properly. 
Planning work ahead provides a comparatively uniform flow 
of work. The other causes are more psychological in nature 
and resolve themselves into individual manifestations. It is, 
therefore, better to work with the employees as individuals, 
starting them one by one, instructing them in standard 
methods, and convincing them that the standards are just. 

Motion pictures may be of great service in applying stand- 
ards. The advantages of motion pictures showing the per- 
formance of an operation that conforms to the standards are 
threefold. They can be used in instructing new employees in 
the detail execution of their job. At the most difficult points 
the picture can be slowed down and all of the employees shown 
the exact motions performed at these places, at a speed less 
than would be possible in any actual performance. Finally, 
the picture puts on record the standards which have been set, 
and if at any time these are altered or modified the change 
will be evident, whereas under ordinary conditions the change 
is apt to escape notice. In this way a new standard may be 
made or rejected after a test proves its worth. 

After the employees on the operation are all working 
under the new standards the analyst should provide a routine 
which will act automatically to prevent the reappearance of con- 
ditions limiting production. This may be done by having a 
graphic record kept of the daily earnings as taken from the 
pay-roll. Figure 10 shows a chart kept in one factory of the 
employees' earnings, giving the weekly earnings of each em- 
ployee separately and showing the elements making up the 
total. The employees in this factory were paid on piecework, 
plus a bonus if they made the standard on piecework earnings. 



4 6 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



I 





$10. 


$15. 


$20. 


$26. 


$30. 


$35. 


$40. 


$45. 


$5C 
















Wee 


klyE 


,arni: 


lgs in Dollars 
















Employee's Nam 
<< I Num 










































Chart of Employee's 
| f ? r 


Garni: 


lgS 


























1st half year Jan 

2nd half year July 


_to_ 
to 












































/ 


JonuE 
































A 


\ 






























£ 




c 

i3 






o 
o. 
_o 


























<£? 










c 

u 

5? 






























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1 






p 































0) 

c 






a 
o 

a 






























"o 






_> 






























14 


























































































Jan. 8 
15 
22 

29 

Feb. 5 

12 
















































































C 


>rrect 
44 hoi 


;d to 
irs x 




















bo 
.S 






3 


hour's 












<?'* 












26 

Mar. 5 

12 

19 


c 
















\ 


\ 




S 


—Pi 


ecewo 
plus 


rkEa 
Bonu 


■nings 
i 












A 


:tual 
Eai 


'iecev 
nings 


'ork— 


» 


( 




1 


) 










26 

Apr. 2 

9 




















^ 


: 




S 


* 


























/ 






> 










23 
30 














We< 


kly] 


> 

]arni 


f 

ngs i 


iDol 


lars 













$15 



$25. 



$35. 



$40. 



$45. 



$50. 



Figure io. Graphic Chart of Employees Piecework Earnings 



METHOD OF PROCEDURE 47 

The curves at the top show the proportion of the piecework 
to the bonus earnings, the distance between the lines repre- 
sents the amount of bonus, and the corresponding point on 
the bonus-line the total earnings. Thus, if an employee earned 
$30 on piecework, he would earn $7.50 additional bonus, 
making a total of $37.50 as shown by the dotted lines. The 
lower part of the chart shows the actual piecework earnings 
for each week in one line. The earnings on the chart are 
figured on a 44-hour basis so that where an employee worked 
only 31 hours, as during the second week of February, the 
earnings for 31 hours were increased by 44/31 to correct the 
chart to the standard number of working hours. The em- 
ployee is paid, of course, only for what he earns in the actual 
time worked, but in order to compare the amount of produc- 
tion for the time actually worked it is necessary to refigure 
it on the common basis of a 44-hour week. 

The methods department looks over the record every week, 
investigating any prolonged or frequent failure to approximate 
the maximum pay and correcting the cause of the failure. 
Further departmental records in graphical form showing actual 
production compared with the maximum, analysis of machine 
time and employees' earnings, amounts of delayed time, de- 
partmental proficiency, and a weekly analysis of total depart- 
ment time, give the management a constant check on the way 
in which the work is being done. The checks complete the 
work of applying the standards because they provide for their 
perpetuation. 



CHAPTER IV 

RESULTS OF JOB STANDARDIZATION 

The Executive's Point of Interest 

The method of procedure taken up in the last chapter is 
applicable to every plant, in spite of the common opinion that 
"every plant is different." This being true, any instances of 
results, even though taken from particular industries and 
operations each one of which is "different," are of general 
interest. In this chapter, therefore, a few illustrations are 
given of results in individual cases, three of which involve 
considerations vital to any industry : the elimination of useless 
operations; the saving of materials through standardization; 
the establishment of a rational bonus system. 

The executive is interested in results as they affect the 
whole plant rather than as they affect particular operations. 
For his benefit, therefore, before giving illustrations of the 
three points just cited, we transcribe a statement 1 by the East- 
ern Manufacturing Company, of the general results obtained 
through scientific management : 

(a) An increase in wages has resulted from the installa- 
tion of this system of task and bonus and the workers appear 
more happy and satisfied with their work owing to the fact 
that they are making more money and turning out a good 
day's work. 

(b) Since the introduction of scientific management, this 
Company has organized a service department whose princi- 
pal function is to look after all matters pertaining to the 
health, comfort, and contentment of all employees. This 



1 Made to the Congressional Labor Committee (1916) in connection with stop-watch 
legislature. 



RESULTS OF JOB STANDARDIZATION 49 

department employs all new help and makes as careful a 
selection as is possible, endeavoring to secure for each posi- 
tion those who are physically and mentally suited to the 
work. Where the health of the worker is not good an 
effort is made to assign him work where there will be as 
little as possible physical strain. There have been no ill 
effects on the health of any of the operators employed on 
task and bonus as there is no undue strain placed upon them 
while working under these conditions. 

(c) The nature of the work done in this mill is such that 
accidents are not liable to happen. No reports of accidents 
to workers on task and bonus have been made since the in- 
troduction of this system. 

(d) Weekly earnings of employees who have been placed 
on task and bonus have increased from 20 to 50 per cent. 

(e) Since the first of January, 1916, this Company has 
been able to reduce its hours of labor from ten to nine with- 
out increasing the cost of production. 

(f) The increase in output since task and bonus have been 
established varies in different departments from 20 to 75 
per cent. 

(g) The cost of product as effected by the work on which 
task and bonus system is applied has decreased on various 
operations in amounts ranging from 10 to 25 per cent. This 
decrease in cost takes cognizance of the fact that the over- 
head or indirect expenses are increased under the system 
of scientific management over what they were under the old 
type of management, but this increase of indirect labor is 
figured in the cost of production which shows a reduction 
in spite of this additional cost factor. 

(h) There has been a marked improvement in the quality 
of the product due to the rigid inspection which has been 
made on all work done under task and bonus. This is evi- 
dent by a decrease in th? criticisms which have been made 
on our product by our customers. 

Eliminating Useless Operations 

The operation of "opening and laying out" cloth in a 
bleachery preparatory to bleaching is a good example of the 



50 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

unstandardized conditions found in many plants. A study of 
the particular plant from which the following illustration 
is taken revealed the fact that it required nine independent 
operations to get the cloth out of the bale and on to the truck 
so that it could be made ready for singeing and bleaching. It 
took a crew of seven men to handle the goods under these con- 
ditions, and since they were busy throughout the day perform- 
ing first one operation, then another, it was impossible under 
this routine to eliminate a single man. The foreman in this 
plant felt that the method in use was better than that in any 
other mill in the country, and he was a man with many years' 
experience in a number of different mills. Time study and 
job analysis, however, soon showed the possibilities of cutting 
down the number of operations from nine to four, and the 
number of men from seven to three. 

The operations as performed before analysis was made 
are indicated in Figure n. 

The operations necessary after the analysis had been made 
are indicated in Figure 12. 

Standardizing to Save Materials 

The saving which can be effected on any operation may 
result either from cutting down the amount of time required 
by a machine or workman, or from cutting down the amount 
of material used. In operations in which the material cost 
is the largest percentage of the cost of the operation, an 
especial attempt should be made to save the material. An illus- 
tration of such an attempt comes to mind in the operation of 
cutting leather hides and furs for use in making overcoats, in 
which case it became possible to standardize an unstandardized 
product. The material in this case was 90 per cent of the 
total labor and material cost. Each pelt was of a different shape 
and size, each also had imperfections unlike those in any other 
pelt; consequently those working with this particular product 



RESULTS OF JOB STANDARDIZATION 



51 






ft 





>> 






T3 




+J 


03 




3 


<u 


c5 







n 


T3 


T3 




<u 


rt 


(Tl 




O 




3 






V-i 


T) 


Ph 


o> 


Sh 




> 


nS 




O 


'O 


<U 




c 


& 


rt 




52 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



felt that since they had a material which was unstandardized, 
it was impossible to standardize the amount of leather a work- 
man should use in turning out a definite quantity of coats. 




Cloth was delivered in bales and placed 
on their sides in position for opening. 



One Employee 
Straps were cut and burlap stripped 
down. 



Each piece was laid out on flat 
truck, all facing one way. 

Top and bottom ends of each piece 
were pulled out. 



When truck was full ends were 
thrown ever load ready for 

moving. 

Figure 12. Chart Showing Details of "Opening and Laying Out " after Job 

Standardization 

The detail study showed that even though each skin had its 
own peculiarities the experienced cutter unconsciously always 
used the same scheme for getting the greatest quantity of 
parts out of a given area of skin. This was not realized even 
by the workmen themselves until their attention was called to 
it. Standards for varying sizes and quality of the skins were 
developed through the combined efforts of the skilled cutter 
and the analyst. Definite instructions based on these standards 
were furnished to the employees so that they could cut skins 
to the best advantage. In this industry the workmen have 
always felt that a number of years was necessary to develop 
a first-class cutter. The use of standards, however, made the 



RESULTS OF JOB STANDARDIZATION 53 

process of breaking in new men far more simple. The annual 
saving which resulted from this particular standardization was 
approximately $16,000. 

Rationalizing the Bonus 

Many bonus plans were instituted during the war for the 
purpose of getting maximum production from a plant. Fun- 
damentally, paying a bonus for increased production is good, 
but without standards many injustices may result. To illus- 
trate : when the employees on an operation have been work- 
ing with, great concentration and producing the maximum 
quantity, they are unable to produce more no matter how large 
a reward is offered; whereas when employees on an operation 
have been loafing, they can increase their production tremen- 
dously under the stimulus of a bonus and thereby get a very 
large return which they do not deserve. For a time bonus 
systems were very popular, and executives seemed to regard 
them as a panacea. They soon realized, however, that many 
of the bonus plans in use were not satisfactory, and would 
have to be replaced by other and more reliable plans. 

One concern, for instance, without having made a thorough 
analysis of their conditions, hurriedly instituted a bonus system 
in one department where 1 50 men were employed, not even tak- 
ing the time to explain to the employees how the bonus was 
figured. The workmen, therefore, did not know how much 
they were expected to do to earn a bonus, but simply found 
that at the end of a two weeks' period more money appeared 
in their pay envelopes than heretofore. They very soon real- 
ized that the arrangement was baseless and fundamentally 
wrong, through their checking back and discovering that their 
pay was not commensurate with their output. The result was 
that they no longer felt a desire for increased production. 

The management also saw that it was necessary to have 
a thorough analysis made and that a plan based on the analysis 



54 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

should be worked out in such a way that it could be under- 
stood by the employees as well as the management. After 
three months' careful study the standards were worked up, 
the entire plan of production was standardized, and the new 
bonus plan explained to the men so carefully that they under- 
stood all of the details. The results were most gratifying. 
The company record showed that during the first month the 
bonus plan was in use a saving of more than $4,000 in direct 
labor was the result. This saving was continued and the men's 
earnings were increased about 20 per cent more than they 
had been under the old wage plan, while at the same time the 
direct labor costs had been reduced more than 25 per cent. 
The comparative weekly man-hour production for the three 
groups of men before and after the methods were changed 
and the new bonus system started is given in Figure 13. It 
will be noted that at the left of the vertical lines the results 
of the output before the new bonus plan was put into effect 
are shown, and to the right of the vertical line the results after 
introduction of the new bonus plan. The increase in produc- 
tion amounted to about 30 per cent. 

Day Work and Defective Economics 

The day-work plan of operating is in vogue in many places 
where it is assumed that the quality factor is so large that it 
would be unwise to place the work on a measured basis. This 
mistaken idea, however, is losing ground from year to year, 
because every situation which has been properly analyzed 
and developed has proved that the bonus plan is not only 
practical but also economical and to the interests of the man- 
agement and the workmen. 

In a number of plants the belief obtains that their work is 
controlled by piece-rate prices, whereas in reality the basis 
is that of day work because the management guarantees at 
least the day-work rate to employees on piecework. This 



RESULTS OF JOB STANDARDIZATION 



55 



was the case in a certain garment factory. On the operation 
of pressing the management increased the piece-rate prices 
several times, but as each increase seemed inadequate, the 
management finally decided to refrain from any further in- 



1920 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. 
101724 31 T 14 21 28 613 20 27 3 101724 1 



May June July Aug. Sept. 

5 15 22 295 12 19263 10172431 7 14 21 28 41118 25 




1017 24 31 7 14 2128 6 13 20 27 3 1017 24 1 
1920 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. 



8 15 22 29 5 12 1926 3 1C 17 2431 7 14 2128 4 1118 25 
May June July Aug. Sept. 



Figure 13. Graphic Chart Showing Comparative Weekly Production for 
Three Groups of Men before and after Methods Were Changed and New 

Bonus Started 



crease and to pay a guaranteed rate. As a result the pressers 
earned on an average but two-thirds of their pay, while the 
other third of their pay represented the amount guaranteed 
by the company. Analysis of the operation showed that the 
pressers could without difficulty turn out 25 per cent more pro- 
duction. New rates were set on this basis and the guarantee 
removed. As a result of the establishment of standards, the 
pressers were able to earn an additional 20 per cent in wages 
and correspondingly increased the production. 



56 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Emergency Case and Emergency Measure 

In most cases the industrial engineer is not called in to 
undertake a piece of work until the manufacturer has been 
faced with some problem which requires immediate action. 
Few of these problems, unfortunately, can be solved quickly 
enough to meet the immediate need. Occasionally, however, 
the manufacturer is in a position where such an emergency case 
can be handled very effectively through emergency measures. 

In a certain paper mill in which an industrial engineer had 
been working for some time a problem came up in the "coating 
plant" which involved the alternative of closing the plant or 
of attempting to produce the work more cheaply. The work in 
question involved a number of operations before the quality 
of the product could be inspected, which meant that at least 
a week had to elapse between starting the work and finishing 
it. The operations involved were mixing the color, coating 
the paper, finishing it by calendering, and sheeting it so that 
it could be inspected. Through the continuous watchfulness of 
the foremen the work seemed to have been done as efficiently 
as could be expected. 

The preliminary survey showed that the operation of mix- 
ing the color had been standardized, but in order to standard- 
ize the second operation, where the color was applied to the 
surface of the paper, it would be necessary to determine at 
different points in the long drying tunnel the proper method of 
applying heat; the proper quantity of heat to apply; and the 
relation between heat and humidity. Under the circumstances, 
elaborate research was out of the question. The work the 
analyst had done in other departments, which included the 
keeping of accurate cost records, had resulted in the Cost De- 
partment instituting and keeping similar records for the coat- 
ing department. With these as a basis, he was able to make a 
study of past performances and draw up the analysis set forth 
in Figure 14. 



RESULTS OF JOB STANDARDIZATION 



57 



Men Operation 

i. Mixers A. Mixing colors 

2. Coating Crew A. Tear off wrapper 

B. Coat paper 

C. Dry 

D. Wind on rolls 

3. Calender Men A. Finishing 



4. Cutters 



5. Inspectors 



Opportunities 
for Improvement 

(a) Matching of colors 

(b) Uniformity of colors 

(a) Reduction in waste, 
removing wrap- 
per 

(b) Uniformity of coat- 
ing of colors 

(c) Avoiding wrinkles 

(d) Maintaining proper 
dryness of paper 

(a) Reduction in waste 

in rethreading 

stock 

(b) Avoiding wrinkling 

(c) Giving proper finish 
A. Cutting paper to size (a) Obtaining greatest 

quantity from a 
lot 
A. Quality inspection 



Figure 14. Analysis of Coating Operations in a Paper- Mill 

The analyst then took up the question with the foremen 
and the workmen, showing them the figures of past perform- 
ances as to quantity of work and as to the amount of waste. 
He showed them the amount it would be possible to save for 
each per cent of increase in production and for each per cent 
saved from wastage. He worked out his statements in dollars 
and cents, and the men were told that the company would agree 
to share with them on a half-and-half basis all of the savings 
which resulted. This meant that every man engaged in the 
work when all the machines were running would share equally 
in the bonus. 

The management did not think it possible to make very 
large savings, because the work had always been considered 
as satisfactorily performed by the entire group. To every- 



S 8 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

body's surprise, however, the increase in production for the 
first year amounted to 21 per cent with a reduction in waste 
of 20 per cent, which meant a bonus to the men of 26 per cent. 
This made the average cost about 79 per cent of the costs 
prior to the time the new system went into effect. After two 
years the actual money savings as shown by their records, in 
spite of a 10 per cent shut down, amounted to $43,000 for 
the year. 



CHAPTER V 

PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS 

Desirability of Trained Assistance 

It is advisable for the company that plans to make use of 
job standardization to secure, at least, one man from outside 
the organization who is capable of directing its installation. 
Although the result of job analysis is greater simplicity and 
effectiveness of operation, this result cannot be gained without 
special knowledge of methods. 

Any company which attempts the undertaking without the 
aid of someone possessing the requisite special knowledge, is 
certain to meet with difficulties and incur uncalled for expenses, 
and is not unlikely to come to grief in the end over some trivial 
obstacle. The outside man whose knowledge and ability can 
help the organization safely across the pitfalls may be a repre- 
sentative of a company of industrial engineers or a graduate 
of a school in which the subject has been thoroughly taught, 
who has supplemented his study with practical experience, or 
even a man whose schooling has been only a wide experience 
in job standardization. At present, men able to qualify for 
directing such work are so rare as to be almost unprocurable 
if some individual concern should desire to retain their exclu- 
sive service. As job standardization becomes more general 
and the training becomes standardized it is to be hoped that 
the number of competent men will increase. 

Eventually the work should be taken over by the company 
organization. Accordingly, one of the chief duties of the out- 
side man is to train, from among the regular employees, a staff 
capable of carrying on what he has begun. 

59 



60 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Securing the Right Analyst 

The size of the job-analysis staff will vary with the size of 
the plant and the complexity of the industry, but whether it 
consists of one or two members or of a corps of men, it will 
be built round the personality of the man directing its work. 
This man in charge may be called the analyst. 

Since the demands made on him will be severe, the analyst 
must possess exceptional qualifications. Where the ground 
already has been broken and a basis of co-operation laid, the 
analyst chosen and trained to succeed the original analyst need r 
to possess most of these same qualifications. 

Combination of Qualities 

Because the work is at once inspirational and technical in 
nature, the ideal analyst needs to possess an unusual combina- 
tion of qualities. The requirements needed are of two sorts : 

i. The ability of the investigator, i.e., the power of col- 
lecting and weighing details and of building a constructive 
program upon these details. 

2. The ability of the executive, i.e., the power of directing 
men and of inspiring confidence and enthusiasm in those with 
whom he works. 

Qualifications for Job Standardization 

The analyst is obliged to have the qualities of the investi- 
gator in order to direct the detail study, and from the results 
of such study determine the standards. In this part of the 
work the qualities he most needs are : 

i. Power of analysis. 

2. Accuracy in details. 

3. Mechanical sense, if not the training of a practical 

mechanic. 

4. Ingenuity in devising improvements. 



PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS 6l 

Since the investigation is not made in a laboratory but 
among men and women of all sorts and conditions, ability to 
deal with people is necessary to make the results of the study 
effective. For this purpose the analyst needs : 

1. Initiative. 

2. Faith, in himself and in his work. 

3. Tenacity. 

4. Health, with its resulting self-control and steady nerve. 

5. Tact. 

Power of Analysis 

The dictionary defines analysis as the separating or un- 
folding in their order of the elements of a complex body or 
act. In job analysis it shows itself in the ability to break up 
a situation, and on a smaller scale that portion of an industrial 
process known as an operation, into its essentials, not losing 
sight of the relation of the parts to the whole. Analysis of 
the data involves sagacious judgments. Its fundamental im- 
portance in the work is indicated by the term which has been 
chosen as the most descriptive of the subject: job standard- 
ization. 

Accuracy 

A slight error in the original calculation may result in 
serious error when the final standards are reached. Careless 
work entails costly checking and re-checking. If an inaccuracy 
is not corrected before the standards are made up, the results 
are disastrous. Either the standards must be adhered to at the 
expense of the company or of the employees — and such a 
course is most unwise, since the defects in these standards will 
sooner or later be discovered — or they must be altered. All 
the confidence gained with so much difficulty may thus be lost 
in an hour. The analyst should not only be exact in his own 



62 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

work, but quick to detect inaccuracies on the part of those 
who assist him. 

Mechanical Sense 

There is comparatively little work in most factories which 
is done entirely by hand, so that the study of an operation is, 
to a large extent, a study of machinery, tools, and implements. 
The analyst should, therefore, be able to recognize the possi- 
bilities of mechanical improvements and of labor-saving de- 
vices. This does not mean that he must be a full-fledged 
mechanic, but he should at least be able to give a clear 
idea of what he wants and should not, as is so often the case 
with the novice, make recommendations involving large ex- 
pense and small result. In starting a study of a machine it is 
good policy to find out the latest improvements which are in 
the market in order to have the benefit of the best that have 
been developed; yet at the same time the analyst must guard 
against being overinfluenced by his enthusiasm or the persua- 
sive talk of a salesman to recommend changing a machine or 
introducing one of a later type. Small improvements which 
give large results in proportion to expenditure are very often 
possible when the situation is handled by an analyst with a 
well developed mechanical sense. 

One simple but useful mechanical device which was worked 
out by an analyst was a counter used in connection with the 
work of the girl who inspected sheets of paper in a paper-mill. 
The operation consisted in taking the sheets from a pile directly 
in front of her and placing those without soil or blemish on a 
pile at the right, and the others on a pile at the left. As she 
placed the sheet on the pile at the right, she naturally moved 
her right arm and elbow over, so that as the sheet fell upon 
the pile she lowered her elbow. A counter, such as is used 
for taking the count on various kinds of machines was at- 
tached to the top of the stand at a height even with her elbow 



PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS 63 

so that, as a sheet was thrown into the pile at the right, her 
elbow passed over the counter-lever and registered a count. 
Another counter placed at her left elbow gave a separate count 
for the paper that fell into the pile at the left. Since the paper 
after this operation was wrapped and sealed in quantities of 
five-hundred sheets, a bell was attached to this counter, to ring 
at the five-hundred mark. When the bell rang the girl put a 
piece of paper in the pile in such a way as to protrude over the 
edge. In this manner the operation of subsequently counting 
the paper was eliminated, which meant not only the saving of 
time, but also since the quality of some grades of paper is 
affected each time it is handled, eliminated one occasion for 
spoilage. 

Resourcefulness 

It is not enough for the analyst to make an accurate study 
of methods already in use. He should be able to suggest im- 
provements in the conditions which affect the operation, intro- 
duce better methods, eliminate useless motions, and contrive 
new devices. 

The equipment may often be poorly adapted to the uses to 
which it is put. Benches may be of wrong height or size ; some- 
times there may not be enough racks and boxes to hold the 
tools needed. The resourceful analyst who is making a study 
of the operation will contrive simple improvements to meet 
these conditions, as, for example, was the case in the operation 
of die-cut labels in a paper novelty manufacturing company. 
The labels used on cans, bottles, and packages, with irregular 
or fancy shapes, are printed on large sheets of paper and are 
cut out from the sheet with a cutter called a die. A number 
of these large sheets, fifteen to twenty, are wired or pinned 
together and the die placed accurately over the label on the top 
sheet, so that, when hit with a mallet, it will cut accurately the 
labels on the other sheets in the pile. Figure 15 shows this 



6 4 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



method of die-cutting labels by hand. The proper platform 
to use, the pitch, and the height of the cutting block were care- 
fully determined by experiment, and a slotted spring platform 
was built two or three inches from the floor, to absorb the 




Figure 1 5. Showing the Standardized Method of Cutting Labels by Hand 

greater part of the jar resulting from each stroke of the mallet. 
The tray in front of the bench shown in the illustration was 
contrived to hold the dies used to cut the different shaped 
labels, for one sheet would contain labels of different sizes and 
shapes, each one, of course, requiring a special die. The rack 
made possible the placing of the dies in a definite sequence, 
which eliminated time in looking for a particular die each time 
a new shape or size was to be cut out of the sheet. 



PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS 65 

Such adjustments, although simple, demand resourceful- 
ness. Routine studies are too often made by routine men, 
whereas the competent analyst makes studies which are of 
constructive value. 

Initiative 

The newer the work, the more initiative is required. Job 
standardization is new in every respect, in the individual plant 
and in industry. There is no well-trodden path for the analyst 
to follow ; he must be able to blaze his own trail. 

Faith 

Because of the novelty of time study and job analysis it is 
at first looked upon with hostility, since an innovation is always 
under suspicion. It is the duty of the analyst to explain away 
hostility and in its place arouse interest. In order to do this 
his faith in the work and his own ability to do it must be not 
only sufficient for himself, but strong enough to communicate 
itself to those with whom he comes in contact. 

Tenacity 

The analyst must also have tenacity to carry his plans to 
a conclusion. It cannot too often be repeated that every 
change meets with opposition, and that the universal slogan of 
workmen and executives is "It can't be done." According 
to Dr. W. R. Lieserson : 

Every human being, no matter how radical he is, is instinc- 
tively afraid of change, suspicious of anything that is new. 
If you are used to eating prunes and oatmeal for breakfast, 
nobody that comes along with a new idea of breakfast food 
can get you to change without trouble. He has to spend 
millions of dollars to prove to you that grape nuts or corn 
flakes, or what not, has brain food in it; and then not all of 
you will change. 1 



1 Bulletin of the Taylor Society, Vol. 5. No. 4. P- 61. 



66 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

The analyst must first be sure his conclusions are correct, and 
then be prepared to uphold them in the face of every argu- 
ment and put through his purpose, thus proving that "can't" 
is not a word in his dictionary. 

Without tenacity, it would have proved impossible for a 
certain analyst, whose experience the writer calls to mind, to 
set standards on the beating of pulp for paper. All authori- 
ties had agreed, not more than eight or ten years ago, that it 
was impracticable to determine by any mechanical means when 
the pulp was sufficiently beaten. They agreed that the only 
way to tell was by the "feel" of the beater-man, that is, the 
beater-man would put his hand in the pulp being beaten, and 
through his sense of feeling be able to determine accurately 
whether the stock should be left in the beater a longer time. 
In the face of trade tradition and the best authorities, this 
analyst successfully persisted in his endeavors to standardize 
the work and eliminate so variable a factor as the sense of 
touch of a workman. 

Health 

One of the chief requisites of an analyst who would be 
successful is health. He should be a man naturally endowed 
with a clear, well-balanced mind and a sound body. Any 
physical defect that is of a serious nature would almost 
inevitably unfit an aspirant for the work of analyst. He 
should, furthermore, not be easily affected by the temporary 
pressure of environment, and he should be capable of resisting 
the fatigue that results from protracted concentration. He 
should be intensely alert to the possible complications latent in 
any problem — at the same time he should continually strive to 
see every situation with judicial impartiality. At no time 
should his judgment be influenced by any pressure, however 
seemingly justified, that might be brought to bear upon him. 
Such qualities are indispensable ; for on their presence depend 



PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS 67 

the accuracy and success of his analysis. Only those capable 
of long periods of complete self-control should be considered 
eligible as candidates for the work of analyst. 

Because his work demands so close an adjustment of mind 
and body the analyst should guard against the appearance of 
any slump which might lessen his efficiency. Medical science 
today offers safeguards against the inroads of forces that 
might, by being ignored or remaining unrecognized, do much 
physical and mental damage, and the analyst should avail him- 
self of these scientific preventions of depletion in order to 
maintain his efficiency at the highest pitch. In his daily work 
he should also take positive methods to eliminate any mani- 
festation that lessens the clear-cut balance which should charac- 
terize his handling of any problem. 

Tact 

Tact, as the term is here used, may be defined as the ability 
to deal successfully with all classes of men — from executives 
to foreign laborers — and to inspire their co-operation. The 
word is not employed in this connection in the sense of a suave 
manner, an absence of sharp corners, and a tendency to com- 
promise. The analyst must have the courage to see things 
through and to face any resulting unpleasantness, but he should 
also be able to deal with the management and the men in such 
a way as to reduce such unpleasantness to a minimum. 

Tact is the outcome of the right combination of all other 
qualities. In the right sort of man it is the result of develop- 
ment and training. The analyst needs continually to call tact 
into use in the solution of complicated problems. Such a case 
is well illustrated by a situation that occurred in the clothing 
industry of a large Eastern city where the manufacturers had 
formed an association to deal collectively with the union. 

The labor manager retained by the association had had 
experience both in unscientifically managed shops and in shops 



68 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

operating under scientific management. His first move, after 
organizing his department, was to establish some kind of work- 
ing agreement about wages, conditions of work, hours and 
overtime, which would be mutually acceptable to the members 
of the association and to the union. This task seemed almost 
hopeless, for neither side had any facts to back up its con- 
tentions — only theories regarding the wages to be paid for 
work of each kind, based on general impressions of what con- 
stituted a good day's work. 

Finding the situation almost hopelessly involved, the labor 
manager brought up at one of the first meetings of the associa- 
tion the need of job standardization. He suggested retaining the 
services of an analyst who should determine the facts which 
they must have if they ever hoped to meet the competition of 
other markets. The association became very much interested in 
the idea, but could not get together as a whole to retain the ser- 
vices of an analyst to do this work, which was such a new de- 
parture for them. The analyst succeeded, however, in interest- 
ing one of their members, who had labor complications in his 
factory, to the point of deciding to go ahead alone. The 
analyst then interviewed the Union officials and obtained their 
assent to work along the lines laid out by him and which were 
satisfactory to them. 

When the assent of the union officials had been obtained 
the analyst called both parties into conference and outlined his 
plan. He explained that the first step was a diagnosis of the 
case. This meant an investigation of the work from the recep- 
tion of the orders till the finished product left the factory — and 
the investigation would take several months. The manufacturer 
questioned the necessity for using so much time. He wanted the 
analyst to begin immediately to take time studies and to get the 
employees to work. Otherwise, he said, he was afraid that the 
diagnosis would benefit no one because his business seemed 
to him to be short-lived, In spite of all objections, however, 



PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS 69 

both sides agreed to keep their hands off and do whatever 
the analyst needed to make a complete diagnosis. 

The investigation revealed a grave misunderstanding of 
the situation on the part of both manufacturer and workers. 
The manufacturer was convinced that the workmen were "lay- 
ing down on the job," and that he was losing thereby hundreds 
of dollars a week. His records for 191 7, 1918, 1919, showed 
that the cost per garment due to wages only (using 191 7 as a 
basis) increased in 191 8 by 13 per cent, in 1919 by 60 per 
cent, in 1920 by 140 per cent. Wages in 1920 had only 
increased 80 per cent since 191 7. Even taking into account 
the fact that the style of the garment produced in 1920 was 
more complicated than that in 191 7, the manufacturer could 
see no reason for the abnormally large increase in cost of 
making a garment over the 80 per cent increase granted in 
wages, except that the workmen were simply loafing on 
their jobs. 

The union's officials and the workmen felt that the trouble 
was poor management. They contended that the present style 
of garment required more time to manufacture, though they 
admitted that the workmen had turned in padded production 
records, especially while the firm was introducing the coupon 
system to keep track of the quantity produced by each em- 
ployee. They said that the workmen could turn out more work 
even with the complicated style then in use, provided the 
management did its part by keeping the machinery in repair, 
by having available necessary supplies of needles and thread, 
and the like. A new system of assembling garments would 
also increase their output. They further maintained that many 
rush orders were sent through and that "lot chasers" followed 
these orders and forced the workmen to drop their regular 
work and complete the rush orders, thereby cutting down the 
average number of garments an employee could turn out in a 
day. 



j TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

The Analyst's Diagnosis 

To make the diagnosis and prescribe the right medicine 
the analyst had to find out how the business was managed. 
Such work brought him in touch with all the routine of the 
office, as well as with the executives and clerks that handled it. 
The stock room routine and the problems of the shop came 
next, and at last the workmen. In making an analysis of the 
process of manufacture the analyst always talked to the em- 
ployees. He found out what they thought about their jobs 
and just how much harder they found one job than another. 
He explained to them why he was getting the information, 
he asked for their opinions and assistance, and showed them 
that they could co-operate with the management in working 
out a plan which would be mutually beneficial. After this 
sort of investigation had been carried on for a time both sides 
were somewhat astonished to find how much the analyst had 
learned about what was actually happening in the office and 
the factory ; they had expected that he would attempt to make 
radical changes on the basis of a superficial examination. 

The preliminary investigation provided the opportunity the 
analyst needed for gaining the confidence of the employees. 
He realized that the union officials were only acting as the 
mouthpiece of the workmen. This meant that even when they 
saw the justice and necessity of changes, they had to convince 
the workmen before they could act officially. Only by gain- 
ing the confidence of the workmen first could the analyst hope 
for action from the union officials. 

After several months of intensive work, the analyst ob- 
tained the workmen's good-will. He had not put them to 
any test. He had made no detailed time study of their 
work, and he had investigated the management methods which 
they believed were poor. It must be admitted that at this 
point the management was not so enthusiastic : it wanted to 
see results. 



PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS 71 

Although the analyst was ready to begin standardizing and 
the workmen had confidence in him, there was another 
difficulty to be met. The plant was only one of a large asso- 
ciation of plants, all organized under the same union. The 
workmen, therefore, were afraid that the members of the 
union from other factories would think that by consenting to 
be timed they were acting as "pace-setters." Therefore, con- 
sent had to be obtained from the joint board of the union, 
composed of representatives from all the factories. 

A union official brought up the subject at the weekly 
meeting of the joint board. At his suggestion a committee 
of three was appointed to interview the analyst and report 
recommendations to the board. On the following day, the 
union official and the analyst sat in session with this com- 
mittee. After an interview of several hours in which the 
questions were to the point as well as comprehensive, the com- 
mittee reported favorably to the joint board. The board en- 
dorsed the analyst and appointed one of the men already on 
the committee to appear the following Monday morning at 
the plant when the analyst was to begin his actual time-study 
work. 

Winning the confidence of the union official and the work- 
men and obtaining the approval of the joint board were all 
essential. Had the analyst been unable to keep both sides in 
check until this was accomplished, to take time studies would 
have been possible, if at all, only after a long and hard fight. 
Although at first the extra months spent at the beginning in 
an attempt to educate those involved seemed expensive, the 
investment proved sound. Exact standards of production, 
making both for increased facility and decreased cost in carry- 
ing on the work, have been put into effect, and both manu- 
facturer and union officials are ready to admit that the rela- 
tions between the workmen and the management are now most 
satisfactory. 



72 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

College Man vs. Practical Mechanic 

There is always much discussion and difference of opinion 
as to the relative merits of the man from the shop and the 
college man. In time study and job analysis the technically 
trained college man who has several years of practical ex- 
perience behind him or who has worked at a trade has a 
foundation that particularly fits him for the work. The recent 
college graduate, however, generally proves at the start a 
liability rather than an asset to an organization. His excess 
of theory and his lack of sympathy with the point of view of 
the workman handicap him in dealing with the practical 
issues that arise in the course of job standardization. 

The trained college man should have : 

i. Training in analysis, enabling him to break up a job 
into its elements. 

2. An open mind unaffected by trade traditions. 

3. Sufficient mechanical training to devise new equipment 

for the expeditious handling of work and for getting 
the machines to turn out greater production. 

The practical mechanic has several advantages which the 
recent college graduate lacks, viz., practical experience, me- 
chanical knowledge, traditional knowledge. On the other hand, 
he is apt to suffer from : 

1. An unconscious bias due to trade traditions or per- 

sonal prejudices. 

2. A tendency to be overinfluenced by the ideas of his. 

fellow workmen. 

3. A lack of analytical training. 

4. A lack of ability to express his ideas with sketches 

so as to "put them across." 

5. A lack of the theoretical knowledge necessary for 

dealing with executives. 



PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS 73 

Either the college man or the mechanic may offer the 
right material for training, but the analyst cannot afford to 
lack any of the constructive qualities just enumerated — and 
least of all can he afford to lack the qualities of the executive. 

Consequences of Poor Selection 

In one case a client, after having developed his methods 
to the point where time study and job analysis would be most 
effective, very carefully looked over his organization for 
analysts and decided upon two men who had made quite a 
reputation for themselves in other departments. One was a 
chemist of exceptional ability. He seemed well qualified, 
since he had experience in analysis and training in scientific 
investigation. The other man was a machinist, who had 
made a reputation on his ability to take machines which had 
been invented and built by others but had failed to make good 
in actual use, and put them in such shape that they turned 
out even more than had been originally planned. Nevertheless, 
although the combination of ability had the backing of the 
whole organization, both men failed. The chemist lacked 
faith in his ability to handle the stop-watch and take the 
studies, while the machinist lacked and could not develop the 
ability to co-operate with the employees he was studying. 

Position of the Analyst 

Although particular instances call to an unusual degree 
for all the moral qualities of the analyst, especially that of tact, 
his position is always the same as in the case just cited — he 
needs to gain the confidence and co-operation of both sides. 
It is for this reason that exceptional qualities are demanded 
and a high ideal is set for him. 



CHAPTER VI 

NON-INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING 
PERSONNEL 

Developing Qualified Personnel 

It is important to develop in the members of the time 
study and job analysis staff the qualities required by the analyst. 
Fortunately, the organization of the staff itself affords oppor- 
tunities of testing out and developing would-be analysts. 

The usual method of training the personnel of the staff is 
to combine instruction and actual work. This method has 
been inevitable, partly because job standardization has been so 
new that its own methods were still unstandardized, and even 
more because executives insisted upon immediate results. The 
average executive cannot reconcile himself to postponing 
results while a staff is being organized, which usually means 
from three to six months, even though proper training will, 
in the long run, save time. The necessity of getting immediate 
results means that the training suffers by being modified to con- 
form to daily demands. Such a training is somewhat crude, 
since it cannot be intensive, and it is general instead of detailed 
in character. Nevertheless, by directing the men carefully 
and making the most of every opportunity to teach them the 
method and principles of their work, the experienced analyst 
from an "outside" specialist concern can develop a staff even 
by this haphazard, non-technical method. 

Organization of Staff 

The general lines on which the staff is organized are sim- 
ilar for all plants, irrespective of their size. The typical plant 

74 



NON-INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 75 

is comparatively small (employing less than 1,000 people). 
Even in a large plant job standardization is usually started on 
a small scale, and it is only as the results prove valuable that the 
staff is enlarged. The growth is thus often a matter of grad- 
ual accretion. Whenever the need becomes especially urgent, 
or a promising candidate presents himself, the manager of a 
plant will add a man to the job standardization staff — perhaps 
a clerk who is not expected to pass beyond the routine stage, 
a particularly promising man from the shop, or a college grad- 
uate who "wants to learn the business." 

The fact that job standardization requires a number of 
people to do the elementary work makes it practicable to begin 
with a number of aspirants who apparently possess the neces- 
sary qualifications. Some of them may act as "clerks" for 
figuring and routine work. The best of these are soon pro- 
moted to be "assistants," who determine standards under the 
close supervision of the analyst. A promising man may act 
as assistant practically from the start. It is from the assistant 
group that the man is trained to take over the duties of the 
analyst. 

This ladder-like plan of organization lends itself readily 
to the efforts of the outside analyst who wants not only to 
make the department serve as a rough substitute for a training 
school, but also as a foundation from which he may direct the 
work of standardization. Although the results of combining 
the two processes — determining standards and training men to 
be capable of determining standards — are not ideal, they are 
reasonably adequate to the demands of the situation. 

Breaking in the Novice 

Too often the new assistant is let loose, as it were, in the 
factory and expected to become acquainted with the department, 
the employees, the operations, and a stop-watch all at once. 
In his bewilderment he wastes time and effort trying to do 



76 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

work which is far in excess of his capabilities. It is more 
economical in the end to break in the novice gradually. Instead 
of being hurled in head first, to sink or swim, he should be 
given work which he is able to do and so be led by degrees to 
more responsible and practical work. The man in charge of 
the department should lay out a simple, graduated program 
for him to follow during the first few weeks of his work so 
that this time will serve him as a training period. A course 
of study, similar to the one below, followed during the first 
month will make the work of the novice, during the second 
month, valuable to the company that employs him. 

i. Unless he has already served his term in the clerical 
group, he should be given practice in figuring time-study sheets. 
Computing time-study sheets shows the novice what it means 
to take readings of the stop-watch continuously and the method 
of filling the note sheet. In addition, it gives him practice in 
one part of his work, viz., making extensions. Accordingly, 
the first step in the training is to have the novice compute the 
time-study sheets of other observers. 

2. He should also be taught to use the slide rule. Until 
he is familiar with its use, the analyst will give him a series of 
examples, graded in difficulty, such as those given in Chap- 
ter VII. 

3. He should familiarize himself with the use of the dec- 
imal stop-watch. He should also be taught to take readings 
without stopping the watch. 

4. Before going into the factory he should be able to use 
the stop-watch without difficulty. Office work provides 
many opportunities for time study. There he may take simple 
over-all studies, recording only the times of starting and 
stopping an operation. 

5. He should next take similar simple over-all studies in 
the factory. The first operations on which he will time for 
practice should be : 



NON-INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL yy 

(a) Drilling holes in bolts 

(b) Loading or unloading cars of material 

(c) Filling and nailing up cases » 

6. He should next be given practice in working up time 
studies — that is, he should carry out the entire routine of 
making a time study. After taking each time study he should 
make the extensions and tabulations, and plot the curves show- 
ing the times taken under different conditions. 

7. The next step is to take time studies of operations 
divided into, parts or elements. He should first divide the 
operation into two parts. For example, in drilling a bolt the 
division would be : 

(a) Time drilling hole. (Element starts as soon as 

bolt is placed in machine, and is finished when the 
drill is lifted.) 

(b) Time getting bolt ready to drill. (This includes 

putting bolt just drilled in tray at right of machine, 
picking up next bolt from tray at left of machine, 
and placing it ready to drill hole.) 

8. He should now practice taking time studies in which 
the operation is divided into smaller and smaller elements. 
He should, however, not yet attempt to break up any operation 
into elements that require less than 0.25 or one quarter 
of a minute to perform. He should always work his data up 
completely — with curves and tables — for one job before he 
undertakes another that is more complicated. This practice 
in taking and working up elementary time studies should be 
continued until the novice can take readings without difficulty. 

9. During this training period books and periodicals con- 
taining discussions of industrial management problems should 
be assigned for reading outside of working hours. Written 
reviews of all books read should be handed in for criticism 
and discussion with the analyst. 



7 S TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

After about two months of this training it is advisable 
to throw away all of the time studies, notes, and tabulations 
taken to date, because inaccuracies make them practically val- 
ueless, and start the assistant with a clean slate. 

Directing the Assistants 

For a long time after this short breaking-in period is over 
and the assistant is capable of doing work of practical value, the 
analyst should direct his work and supervise each step closely. 

The analyst should decide upon the operation on which it 
is advisable for the assistant to begin. He himself will make 
a brief preliminary survey of it in order to lay out the general 
method of attack, suggest what appear to be the principle 
factors, analyze the causes of variation, and so on. This will 
put the assistant in a position to take and work up a number 
of detail studies, of a more or less routine character. When 
these are in shape, the analyst will go over them with the assist- 
ant, helping him to draw conclusions and make plans for 
further study. 

The assistant will present suggestions for changes to 
the analyst. If these prove really to constitute improvements, 
the analyst will take them up with the management and see 
that they are acted upon. 

When enough studies are taken, the assistant will be allowed 
to establish tentative standards ; but these will be checked and 
the final standards determined by the analyst, who tells him 
how to put them into shape. 

The work of applying the standards is done almost entirely 
by the analyst, since it requires more tact than can be expected 
of the assistant. 

As the assistant becomes more and more experienced, how- 
ever, this close supervision is gradually withdrawn, until he 
may be said to have graduated from the training school and 
be a regular working member of the staff. 



NON-INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 



79 



Learning from Mistakes 

Errors, however, are always being made. Instead of 
allowing each novice to make again the mistakes of his prede- 
cessor, the analyst, who takes his duties of instructor seri- 
ously, sees that all the members learn from the mistakes of 
each one. This is a matter to which the head of any department 
must give a great deal of thought. Whenever an error is 
committed, the analyst should call the attention of the staff to 
its far-reaching effects showing the principles involved so 
that neither it nor a similar mistake will be made by the depart- 
ment a second time. 

The Ten Don't Commandments 

In this connection it has been found advisable to provide 
the novice with certain warnings against the most common 
pitfalls. These were gathered together under the heading of 
the "Ten Don't Commandments." While it is true that instruc- 
tions should usually be given in positive terms, it may not be 
amiss for once to list a number of items in negative terms. 
These items cover the besetting sins of the novice. 

i. Don't forget or get careless in using the decimal point 
either when taking the time study or when working it up. 

Wrong Way 
Notes Sy. Read. Ex. Notes 





Correct Way 


5y- 


Read. 


Ex. 




0.00 




a 


.07 


0.07 


b 


.09 


0.02 


c 


.16 


0.07 


d 


•94 


0.78 


a 


1.03 


0.09 


b 


.06 


0.03 


c 


.12 


0.06 


d 


•85 


0-73 


a 


.92 


0.07 


b 


2.04 


0.12 


c 


3.02 


0.98 


d 


.82 


0.80 


x'' 


6.83 


3.01 


a 


•93 


O.IO 


y 


11.94 


5.01 





Wrong Way 


y- 


Read. 


Ex. 


a 


7 


7 


b 


9 


2 


c 


16 


7 


d 


94 


78 


a 


103 


9 


b 


6 


3 


c 


12 


6 


d 


85 


73 


a 


92 


7 


b 


4 


12 


c 


2 


98 


d 


82 


80 


X 


683 


301 


a 


93 


10 


y 


1 194 


501 



80 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

2. Don't fail to enter the minutes often enough to make 
it evident at a glance how many minutes have elapsed at any 
given point. This will prevent the danger of dropping a 
minute through carelessness. 

3. Don't fail to enter every possible note and dimension 
on the time-study sheet which may have any bearing on time 
or manner of doing the work. Where possible get a sample 
of the article being time studied. Many a study is found 
worthless due to the failure to record some apparently minor 
dimension. 

4. Don't get directly in front of the employee on whom 
you are taking studies or so close to him that you almost 
knock elbows. 

5. Don't use the back of a time-study sheet or scrap of 
paper for notes or tabulations. Do the figuring on the face 
of the sheet or a sheet securely attached to the original. 

6. Don't consider that simply recording what the em- 
ployees actually do and averaging these times is doing time 
study and job analysis work. The results from this mistaken 
viewpoint are little better than the old piece rates set by a 
foreman on a good guess. 

7. Don't jump at half baked conclusions. Keep your own 
council and check and recheck your conclusions before sub- 
mitting them. 

8. Don't recommend a wage payment plan without con- 
sidering the effect it will have on the entire plant. Company 
policy is established when the first standards are put into 
effect. 

9. Don't think your part of time study and job analysis 
is finished when the standards are determined. No matter 
how accurate the standards are, if you cannot get the em- 
ployees to accomplish the work within the standard time, 
they are of little value. 

10. Above all, don't convey the idea to the employees that 
you are the clever chap who is going to show them how they 
should do their work. 

Recent Development of Intensive Training Courses 

The somewhat crude training provided within the organiza- 
tion, as described in this chapter, has proved under most con- 



NON-INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 81 

ditions fairly satisfactory. The analyst who is facing the 
problem of developing his assistants personally may find help 
and inspiration in visiting a plant which has established a 
training course, or a university having a course, and adapting 
its methods to his own limited facilities. Any such course, 
however, must be supplemented by practical work. 

It is only within the past few years that more intensive 
training courses were thought possible and successfully devel- 
oped by the author. The non-intensive method of training men 
for job standardization was due to two major facts: (i) job 
standardization was in the first stages of development, and each 
new candidate was instructed by word of mouth; (2) the 
officials of companies were not educated as to the importance 
and value of job standardization. 

Period of Development 

During the period when job standardization was being 
developed each analyst was so engrossed in actually working 
out and applying methods that he did not take the time to put 
the result of his practice into tangible form. Each new man 
starting on this work was initiated in the easiest way — that 
is, by assigning him the very simplest clerical work of making 
extensions and tabulations of the studies taken by an expe- 
rienced analyst. The novice was then given, from t'ime to time, 
such information as the analyst thought necessary to stimulate 
him to do his work intelligently as he advanced step by step. 
As the work progressed, the author realized more and more 
the tremendous waste of time, to say nothing of the more or 
less unsatisfactory results of trying to give each new student 
all the points he should have to perform his task properly. 
Moreover, without a manual of some kind there was no way 
of coming to an agreement among the men, and each one 
started working along different lines and talked a different 
language. The attempt to standardize the standardizing 



82 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

of work is embodied in this volume on job standard- 
ization. 

Educating Executives 

Every executive has heard of remedies proclaimed as 
business panaceas. To some who know job standardization 
scarcely more than by name it is but another cure-all. Those 
who really know something about it realize that it is nothing 
of the kind. They know that the mere buying and application 
of a "prescription" by the management, or working it up 
in their own way is not enough. The idea of standardization 
must be sold as a workable program to the workmen before 
its value in the business can be completely demonstrated. Un- 
like a cure-all, job standardization does not promise sudden 
return to health ; it works slowly. But it works systematically 
and completely. As executives grow to realize its value they 
will increasingly make organized use of it in their industries. 
Then the education of those being fitted to be job standard- 
izes will cease to be non-technical and will proceed along care- 
fully thought-out lines. 



CHAPTER VII 

INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 

Advantage of a Training Course 

Although the method of training by experience is satis- 
factory wherever the work is carried on under the direction 
of an able man, it is at best very slow. Neither the aim of 
educating the personnel nor that of determining the standards 
is achieved with anything like the rapidity with which it 
could be accomplished were it divorced from the other. 
Wherever a large concern, however, adopts job standardiza- 
tion as a business policy covering all its departments, it is 
advisable to introduce a regular training course. The advan- 
tage of a systematic course of instruction is that it develops 
men and women for job standardization in several months. 
Upon completing the course they will be capable of acting as 
responsible assistants, whereas under ordinary methods they 
would need at least a year to reach this stage of efficiency. 
The following course in job standardization has been de- 
veloped by the writer and used by large manufacturing con- 
cerns. The emphasis in this course is placed upon the routine 
of time study rather than upon the larger aspects of job 
analysis, for the reason that the principles of job analysis and 
the qualifications necessary for its conduct can be developed 
to greatest advantage in the factory and by experience, 
whereas it is feasible to lay the groundwork of the mechanics 
of time study chiefly in the office through definite instruction. 
The course consists of : 

i. Instruction in the use of stop-watch and time-study 
sheet. 

83 



8 4 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



3- 



Instruction in the fundamentals and technique of 
time study by means of exercises in the office. 

Study of the best published articles and books on the 
principles and methods of scientific management and 
subjects relating thereto. 

Practice in use of slide rule. 

Practice in field work. 



Use of Stop-Watch 

First of all the student should become familiar with his 
tools. As time study consists of measuring the time taken — 
its chief tool is the stop-watch. The type of stop-watch used, 
however, is somewhat different from the usual kind, being 
adapted to the special requirements of the work. The first 
step in the course is to acquaint the student with its operation 

and proper use. 

The ordinary stop-watch used 
in time-study work is a non- 
continuous movement watch 
— that is, the movement of 
the watch runs only when the 
large hand is in motion. The 
large hand may be started and 
stopped by moving a slide at 
the side. This arrangement 
allows the watch to be started 
and stopped at the will of the 
observer, without throwing the 
hand back to zero. Pressure 
on the top of the stem throws 
the hand back to zero so that the observer can commence 
the record of any new operation at zero. These devices 
give him a complete control of his watch while taking the time 
study. 




Figure 16. Single-Hand Decimal 
Stop-Watch 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 



85 



The dial of the stop-watch, originally designed by Mr. 
Sanford E. Thompson, is marked off in tenths and hundredths 
of minutes, so that it registers the time in tenths and hun- 
dredths of minutes, instead of in minutes, seconds, and frac- 
tions of a second. One complete revolution of the large hand 
takes one minute. The watch has also a small hand for desig- 
nating up to thirty the number of consecutive complete revolu- 
tions of the large hand. The advantage of the decimal sys- 
tem is that it : 



1. Simplifies the recording of times, since decimals are 

easier to write than fractions. 

2. Requires no transposition of minutes to seconds, or 

vice versa, which saves time in extending notes, 
and errors in recording and tabulating values. 

The split-hand decimal timer 
is a modification of the or- 
dinary type of stop-watch in 
that the large hand has a cor- 
responding large hand under- 
neath it, which can be made 
either to stop independently 
of the first large hand or to 
operate with it, at the will 
of the time-study man. The 
split hand is controlled by 
pressure at the side stem. 
The split-hand timer is es- 
pecially useful in timing opera- 
tions on which more than one 
employee is engaged and in timing elements of very short 
duration. 

The ordinary decimal stop-watch and the split-hand watch 
are shown in Figures 16 and 17. 




Figure 17. Split-Hand Decimal 
Stop-Watch 



86 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



Because the stop-watch decimal dial is so unlike that of the 
ordinary watch dial the student will have to study it for some 
time before he is sure of reading it correctly. He will have 




\ „ ■ r 

Spring Clips J x \h, tempered 



Stripped and Glued of \ Whitewood 




Hooks 



H 



1 



-12- 



1 

Figure 18. Line Drawing of a Regulation Time-Study Board 



an opportunity of doing this while the instructor is explaining 
its principles. Before he is drilled in its use he should have 
a mental picture of the dial clearly in his mind and be able to 
visualize it so that he will feel no necessity of counting either 
forward or backward to ascertain the correct reading. 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 87 

Time-Study Board 

Supplementary equipment consists of a time-study board 
such as is reproduced in Figure 18 for holding the watch, 
and a standard form of sheet on which to record the readings. 
The method in which these are used should also be explained 
to the student at the beginning of the course. 

The time-study board with the exposed watch and note 
sheets is a convenient piece of equipment, since holding the 
watch while taking running notes is an awkward process. 
The board shown in Figure 18 has several small hooks or 
spring clasps which hold the watch firmly in place. The note 
sheets also are held on the board by means of spring clips. 
The right hand of the observer is thereby left free to take 
notes. 

Time-Study Sheet 

Before taking time studies the student should be shown 
how to use the standard form of time-study sheet such as is 
given in Figure 19. This form insures uniformity in record- 
ing the data. 

Entering the Headings 

The observer should, first of, all, record opposite the items 
at the top of the sheet the required information, which is : 

Time . .... to State after "time" the time 

of day at which the observation is begun. When the observa- 
tion is completed state after "to" the time of completion. 

Study Number or Symbol. This item should not be filled 
in until the instructor so requests. 

File. Insert the filing symbol which conforms to the com- 
pany's system of filing, provided there is a system. 

Observer. The observer here inserts his own name or 
initials. 



88 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



Time 
Operation 



Study No. or Symbol 
Observer 



File 
Date 
Checked by 



Department 



Notes Sy 



Read Ex Notes Sy Read Ex Notes 



Location 
Employee 

Implements 

Materials 

Conditions and Remarks 



Sy. Detail Elements 



X Unnecessary Delays 
y Necessary Delays 



Rate 



Figure 19. Regulation Time-Study-Sheet 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 89 

Date. Indicate here the date on which the study is made. 
All sheets should be numbered consecutively, viz., 10/18V20; 
10/18V20; 10/18V20. The prefix number with the date in- 
dicates the sheet number. 

Operation. State here the standard name of the opera- 
tion. 

Checked by. This space is not to be filled in until after 
the study has been made. 

Department. State here the building, floor number, room 
number, or any other definite sign of location. 

Employee and Rate. State here the name, or number, 
and rate of pay of the employee to be studied. (Get the rate 
from the pay-roll department and not from the employee). 

Implements. State here all tools and implements used by 
the employee. 

Materials. State here the materials used in the operation. 

Conditions and Remarks. State here all comments as to 
the conditions under which the work is being done. Indicate 
the general character of the employee's work by the words 
poor or good, fast or slow. 

Recording the Elements 

In elementary time study the operation is always analyzed 
into subdivisions or elements, and the observer records the 
time taken according to these as well as according to the 
operation as a whole. 

After entering the necessary descriptive matter at the top 
of the sheet, divide the operation to be timed into its elementary 
units, writing these in the lower left-hand corner, one after an- 
other under the heading "Detail Elements." Should the job 
be long and complicated, it may be analyzed while the timing 
is going on and the elements entered then. The letters a, b, c, 
and so on, which are printed on the sheet, are to facilitate 
designating the elements. The letter x is to be used for "un- 



90 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



necessary" delays and the letter y for "necessary" delays. 
The small alphabet should always be used, reserving the capi- 
tals for the purpose of making up equations or designating 
parts or divisions of a job. 

Recording the Readings 

The time of the elements is read to the nearest hundredth 
of a minute without stopping the watch — that is, the observer 
records on his sheet the watch reading at the moment the ele- 
ment is completed. Later on, in the office, a little figuring 
will give the time taken by each element separately. 

All observers should use the method described whenever 
possible. The stop-watch times are to be recorded in the 
columns headed "Read." (Readings) at the top of the right- 
hand half of the form. These columns are the only place on 
the form where stop-watch readings are to be entered. In 
the column headed "Sy." (Symbols) the observer should place 
the letters a, b, c, and so on, which designate the elements. 
In the column headed "Notes" any remarks which may have 
a bearing on the time taken by the element should be carefully 
recorded. 

Working up the Data 

As soon as each time study is completed the observer 
works up at once the data recorded on the sheet. The first 
step is to find the time taken by each element. 

Having recorded the necessary data, the times for the in- 
dividual elements are found by making subtractions and 
recording the results in the column head "Ex." (Extensions). 
Given the readings of four elements, the record would appear 
as below. The figures in the column headed "Ex." are found 
by substracting the time reading of the first element from that 
of the second, the second from the third, the third from the 
fourth, and so on to the end of the readings. 



Read. 


Ex. 


0.00 




0.05 


0.05 


0.08 


0.03 


0.12 


0.04 


0.17 


0.05 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 91 
Sy. Read. Ex. Notes 



0.17 

The column headed "Ex." should always be totaled to 
check the correctness of the extensions by the over-all time. 

In calculating the average of any series of unit times, al- 
ways carry out the results to three decimal places. This will 
make it possible to differentiate quickly any time value which is 
an average of a number of individual time readings from a di- 
rect reading of some one time value, which will be expressed 
in two decimal places, namely hundredths. 

The next step in working the data recorded on the sheet 
is to take all the time values of one element and tabulate them 
under its symbol. This brings them all together so that they 
can be easily compared and analyzed at the convenience of the 
analyst. The individual times are then to be tabulated, keep- 
ing all the values of the same element together. This tabula- 
tion is made in the space at the left-hand side of the form, be- 
tween the headings and the space for "Detail Elements." As 
rapidly as the individual times are so transferred, a vertical 
line is drawn in the narrow column at the left of the column 
marked Sy. 

Graphical Presentation of Time Values 

The data recorded on the time-study sheets will be for 
variable conditions, such as the amount of weight a man car- 
ries or the distance walked, etc. The relation existing between 
the time values for these different weights carried or distance 
walked can best be determined by graphically plotting on co- 



92 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

ordinate paper the time values against the weight or distance. 
The student should therefore be instructed in presenting the 
facts graphically, and should study books on this subject. 

Drill in Taking Time Studies 

The next step in the course consists of a number of exer- 
cises, which are intended to train the student to take time 
studies accurately and rapidly and to familiarize him with 
methods incidental to the use of the stop-watch so far as its 
actual manipulation is concerned. This step is most im- 
portant. The first requirement of a time study is that it be 
absolutely accurate, as a study whose accuracy is subject to 
suspicion, is without value and unless the man taking it is 
adept in reading the watch and noting the readings even for 
motions that follow each other with extreme rapidity, the ac- 
curacy of a study will be doubtful. 

Both instructor and student should be provided with 
proper equipment for the exercise as follows : 
Instructor: 

One blackboard 

One deck ordinary playing cards 

One decimal timer (preferably a split-hand timer) 
Students: 

One time-study board 

Fifty time-study sheets 

One fountain pen or 4H pencil 

One decimal timer 

Exercises 

The series of exercises in the use of the stop-watch given 
below is so designed as to lead the student through increas- 
ingly complicated stages until he is finally alert enough to 
make an independent detail study without a great deal of 
coaching from the instructor. 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 



93 



In order that the instructor may gage the accuracy of the 
work done by the students and in order that the students may 
gage the correctness of their own work, the actual readings 
of each of the students are called off to the instructor one 
by one and entered in a column under the students' names 
on the blackboard. This gives a basis for comparing and 
grading the readings of each of the students. The instructor 
should also keep a daily record of each student's rating. From 
these ratings he can establish a record of progress which can 
be used effectively for laying out the special work needed to 
bolster up the individual student whose work seems inefficient 
in some particular. 

The first exercise, given immediately after the students 
are able to read the stop-watch dial and the time-study sheet, 
provides practice in recording individual times from hearing. 
The advantage of such an exercise is that while all their at- 
tention is still required for the unfamiliar act of reading the 
watch, the fact that they can tell the start and finish of the 
operation from the sound relieves them of any necessity of 
keeping their eyes on the operation as well. 

i. Taking Readings by Hearing, Stopping Watch for 
Each Reading. The instructor takes a deck of playing cards 
and performs the operation of shuffling the deck of cards for 
the students to time. He denotes the beginning and ending 
of the operation by a sharp rap with the cards on the desk. 
Students are not to watch the instructor but to rely on their 
sense of hearing to catch the starting and stopping times. 
They are to start the watch at the given signal, by releasing 
the slide, and stop it with this slide when hearing the second 
signal. They are then to record the individual time on the 
time-study sheet and snap the hand back to o ready for the 
next cycle. 

2. Taking Readings by Hearing, without Stopping 
Watch. This exercise is the same as number I except that 



94 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

the student is to record his readings as continuous times. 
That is, he is to start the watch with the slide when the in- 
structor starts the exercise — a series of shuffling operations — 
and not stop the watch till the instructor denotes the end of 
the exercise. While the watch is going the students, upon 
each tap by the instructor, denoting the completion of the 
operation, will make a reading and enter this reading on the 
time-study sheet. After the instructor has finished going 
through a series of exercises such as those just described the 
students then work up their time-study readings by subtract- 
ing one watch reading from another to determine the time 
taken by each cycle of the operation. The instructor should 
see that each student checks his subtractions by adding the in- 
dividual times and comparing them with his over-all time. 

By the time the students have reached the third exercise 
they should be able to divide their attention between watching 
the operation and getting the watch reading. Accordingly the 
student is now expected to tell the start and finish of the opera- 
tion by sight instead of by sound. 

3. Taking Readings by Watching, Stopping Watch for 
Each Reading. The instructor continues to shuffle and fan 
the cards as in the 2 previous exercises. The starting and 
stopping signal, however, is given by a motion of the hands 
rather than by a sound. The student is to watch the instruc- 
tor for his cues as to the beginning and ending of a cycle. 
The watch is to be started at the beginning of the operation 
and stopped at the end of the operation. The individual 
reading is recorded on the time-study sheet and the watch 
then snapped back to o. 

4. Taking Readings by Watching, without Stopping 
Watch. Exercise 4 is the same as exercise 3 excepting that 
the watch is not stopped at the end of cycle and thrown back 
to o after reading the watch. It is a development similar to 
that made by exercise 2 over exercise I. 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 95 

In the first 4 exercises no attempt was made to record any 
description of the operation. The student was merely expected 
to note its starting and stopping times, as either heard or seen. 
The exercises were in this respect like over-all time studies. 
In making time studies, however, it is necessary to break up 
an operation into its elements and to describe these by a letter, 
and the student should be taught to do so at this point. 

5. Taking Readings of Several Motions or Elements, De- 
signating Them by Symbols. The instructor will shuffle and 
fan the cards at random, requesting the students to designate by 
a letter or symbol on the time-study sheet, the element, that is, 
whether shuffling or fanning. The instructor shuffles the cards 
by cutting them, shuffling them consecutively from 1 to 10 
times — that is, the first time cutting the pack in half, the 
second time making 3 cuts, and so on. He gives the cues by 
motions of his hands. He will next follow each shuffling of 
the cards with a fanning element occurring 3 times, then 
5 times, then 7 times, then 10 times. 

The next exercise provides the student with additional 
practice in dividing the operations into elements and timing 
them. Instead of two elements, however, exercise 6 includes 
eleven elements. 

6. Taking Reading of a Number of Elements. The in- 
structor in this exercise will perform the following elements : 

Shuffle pack of cards 3 consecutive times. 

Fan cards twice. 

Lay 10 cards in one pile. 

Lay 10 cards in second pile. 

Lay 8 cards in third pile. 

Lay 8 cards in fourth pile. 

Lay 6 cards in fifth pile. 

Lay 4 cards in sixth pile. 

Lay 3 cards in seventh pile. 

Lay 3 cards in eighth pile. 

Gather cards together. 



96 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

The student should first record the sequence of the move- 
ments on the time-study sheet, deciding on a definite designa- 
tion or symbol to represent each of the elements. He will then 
record the readings of the elements. These in the first order 
of performance, given above, become gradually shorter and 
harder to record. The instructor repeats the exercise, varying 
the order of performance, until the student is able to note 
even the shortest element without difficulty. The instructor 
will also introduce some unnecessary or x delays, such as 
dropping and picking up one of the cards, to ascertain whether 
the students are quick to note the delay element as distinct 
from the others and record the time lost. 

It is difficult to take accurate readings where the steps or 
elements follow each other with great rapidity. 

The next exercise teaches the student how to take a study 
on an operation in which the unit times are too short for him 
to read separately. 

y. Continuous Times — Subdividing Steps into Groups. 
The instructor will perform the steps of laying down first seven 
cards, then six, then five, and so forth. He will then gather 
them. He will also give the cues to start and to stop bv a mo- 
tion of the hands. He will perform the cycle as uniformly as 
possible, going through the eight steps - 3.J, a6, a$, a<4, a.3. 2.2, 
ai, and b. He should go through the entire series three times. 

The letter "a" preceding the numeral indicates the act of 
laying the cards. The letter "b" indicates the act of gathering 
them. 

The student will start the watch with the slide at the given 
signal, timing the series from laying down seven cards up to 
and including laying down one card. He should secure at least 
three separate observations before passing to the next step. The 
second observation should start with laying down six cards 
and should include gathering; the third step should start with 
laying down five cards, and should include gathering and stop 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 



97 



with laying down seven cards and so on. The eight equations 
will be as follows : 



I 


a7 + a6 + 


as + 


a4 + 


a3 + 


a2 + 


ai = 


A 


2 


a6 + 


as + 


a4 + 


a-3 + 


a2 + 


ai + b = 


B 


3 


a7 + 


as + 


a4 + 


a3 + 


a2 + 


ai + b = 


C 


4 


a7 + a6 


+ 


a4 + 


a3 + 


a2 + 


ai + b = 


D 


5- 


a7 + a6 + 


a5 


+ 


a3 + 


a2 + 


ai + b = 


E 


6. 


a7 + a6 + 


as + 


a4 


+ 


a2 + 


ai + b = 


F 


7- 


a7 + a6 + 


as + 


a4 + 


a3 


+ 


ai + b = 


G 


8. 


a7 + a6 + 


as + 


a4 + 


a3 + 


a2 


+ b = 


H 


9- 


7a7 + 7a6 + 


7aS + 


7a4 + 


7a3 + 


7a2 + 


7ai + 7b = 


S 



Adding the 8 equations gives equation 9. 
Dividing through by 7 gives equation 10. 



10. a7 + a6 + as + a4 + a3 + a2 + ai + b = - 

7 

The next step is to find the value of each element by subtracting 
each equation from equation 10. 

Element b 

S 
10. a7 + a6 + as + a4 + a3 + a2 + ai + b = - 

7 
1. a7 + a6 + as + a4 + a3 + a2 + ai = A 



b = A 

7 



Element a7 

S 
10. a7 + a6 + as + a4 + a3 + a2 + ai + b = - 

2. a6 + as + a4 + a3 + a2 -f- ai + b = B 



a7 



B 



Similarly take each equation in turn, and subtract it from equation 10. 



9 8 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Points of Technique 

These exercises are intended not only to give the student 
practice in manipulating the stop-watch, but also to train him 
in the correct way in which to take studies. Slipshod habits 
once started are hard to break. Moreover even this elementary 
work provides the student with his first opportunity to prove 
his caliber. There are, in this connection, certain points which 
the instructor should not overlook. 

The following points are to be insisted upon : 
i. The watch must always be started and stopped with the 
slide and snapped back to o with the stem. 

2. Notes must be recorded on the standard form, using a 
fountain pen or hard pencil. 

3. All exercises must eventually be taken while standing, 
but for the first two weeks it will be advisable to alternate 
standing twenty minutes and sitting twenty minutes. 

4. All over-all times are to be checked by the instructor, 
using the split-hand decimal timer. 

5. The instructor should allow absolutely no deviation 
from the prescribed method of taking the observations as set 
forth in each exercise. 

In exercise 5, when introducing the step of fanning the 
cards several times, the instructor should not call attention 
to the necessity of recording how many times the cards are 
fanned but should check up each student to see if he has grasped 
the point for himself. 

The instructor should daily look over each man's work 
and note his weaknesses. He should make notes of all points 
that can be improved upon and call attention to them in the 
class, the first thing in the morning. 

The instructor should bear in mind that at the end of these 
exercises all persons who have failed to qualify should be trans- 
ferred to another course, as it is extremely unlikely that a 
student could fail to master these exercises and still become 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 99 

a good analyst. The instructor should, therefore, observe 
closely each student's work and rate him daily on the basis of 
the quality of his work. 

Reading Matter 

Throughout the course, to supplement the routine the 
student should be given outside reading on job standardiza- 
tion and on scientific management. The books should be care- 
fully chosen so as to provide the best material published on 
the work from as varied points of view as possible. The books 
should not, however, be chosen so that they will plunge the 
student into material that is beyond his comprehension. The 
following 10 books are suggested : 

Brinton, W. C, Graphic Methods of Presenting Facts 

Diemer, H., Industrial Organization and Management 

Drury, H. B., Scientific Management 

Gantt, H. L., Industrial Leadership; Work, Wages and 
Profits 

Gilbreth, F. B., Primer of Scientific Management 

Hoxey, R. F., Scientific Management and Labor 

Kitson, H. D., How to Use Your Mind 

Taylor, F. W., Shop Management 

Thompson, C. B., Theory and Practice of Scientific 
Management 
It is important that the books should be read carefully and 
critically. In order to be sure that the students are using their 
minds in reading and are not failing to understand the book, 
nor merely acquiescing in the statements made without any 
consideration as to their implications, each man should be asked 
to hand in a brief review of several pages on each book read. 
The instructor should then criticize each man's review. He 
can in this way call attention to points overlooked and suggest 
further reading suited to individual needs. While reading is 
especially valuable to the man from the shop, who often does 



IOO 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



not know how to get information from books or how to put 
his ideas on paper, it is of value to all the students, because it 
opens up a large field of information and trains them to make 
use of this information critically, in addition to teaching them 
the principles of their work. 

Using the Slide Rule 

The slide rule, while not a tool peculiar to job standard- 
ization, as is the stop-watch, is one with which everyone doing 
such work should be familiar. There is a great deal of figuring 
necessary with time-study work which can be facilitated by 
the use of the slide rule. The course, therefore, includes 
lessons in its use. 

Three sets of exercises are given the student for each 
branch of computation : multiplication, division, and propor- 
tion. Each set contains fifty examples, graded according to 
the skill requisite to manipulate the rule. 

Slide Rule Problems 
Set No. i — Multiplication 









Answer 








Answer 


I. 


4X 


3 


12 


16. 


54 X 


31 


1674 


2. 


14 x 


3 


42 


17- 


201 X 


21 


4221 


3- 


24 X 


3 


72 


18. 


115 x 


15 


1725 


4- 


34 X 


3 


102 


19. 


97 X 


33 


3200 


5- 


44 X 


3 


132 


20. 


91 X 


33 


3000 


6. 


54 X 


3 


162 


21. 


109 x 


190 


20700 


7- 


64 X 


3 


192 


22. 


119 x 


199 


23680 


8. 


74 X 


6 


444 


23- 


326 X 


235 


76600 


9- 


84 X 


5 


420 


24. 


301 X 


206 


62000 


IO. 


94 X 


6 


564 


25- 


421 X 


206 


86700 


ii. 


115 x 


5 


S7S 


26. 


637 x 


279 


177700 


12. 


101 X 


11 


1111 


27. 


952 X 


102 


97100 


13- 


110X 


11 


1210 


28. 


727 x 


325 


236300 


14. 


14 x 


22 


308 


29. 


23 x 


•3 


6.9 


IS- 


39 X 


83 


3237 


3°- 


76 X 


.8 


60.8 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL ioi 







Answer 






Answer 


31 


31 X 2.5 


77-5 


4i 


1.87 X .32 


0.598 


32 


64 X 2.1 


134-4 


42 


3-58 X .56 


2.005 


33 


75X5-6 


420 


43 


2.28 X 3.16 


7.2 


34 


213 X .2 


42.6 


44 


8.69 X 4-17 


36.24 


35 


567 X .4 


227 


45 


18.72 X 13.21 


247-5 


36 


187 X 23.6 


4413 


46 


1. 01 X 11. 10 


11. 2 


37 


683X.32.7 


22330 


47 


1327 X .53 


703-3 


38 


13-31 X 33 


439' 


48 


.03 X 101.3 


3 -04 


39 


.22 X .31 


0.0682 


49 


.98 X IOI 


99.00 


40 


.68 X .46 


0.3128 


5o 


7508 X 455-3 


3,418,000 



Slide Rule Problems 
Set No. 2 — Division 



I. 310 


20.67 


15 




2- 3^5 


5-42 


60 




3- 345 


4.80 


72 




4- 3J£ 


28.30 


11 




5- 367 


14.7 


25 




6. 43_o 


33-°5 


13 




7- 495 


35-39 


14 




8- 395 


4.60 


86 




9- 34i 


4.49 


76 




10. 411 


5i-5 



11. 


34i 




94 


12. 


4_i3 




5i 


13- 


5_£4 




4i 


14. 


641 




97 


15- 


587 




33 


16. 


641 




72 


17- 


685 




96 


18. 


74i 




86 


19. 


682 




39 


20. 


631 




65 



Answer 
3-63 

8.10 

12.55 
6.61 

17.80 
8.90 
7.14 
8.64 

i7-5o 
9.70 



102 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Slide Rule Problems — Continued 
Set No. 2 — Division 

Answer Answer 

49.10 36. 1025.5 97-75 

10.5 

6i.95 37- 9_43 41-00 

23 

22.55 38- 847 i57-oo 



21. 


687 




14 


22. 


742 




12 


23- 


721 




32 


24. 


649 




21 


25- 


742 




124 


26. 


1242 




7 


27. 


io35 




9 


28. 


25-5 




4 


29. 


145-9 




8 


30. 


245-9 




8 


3i- 


245.6 




2-5 


32. 


458 




9.6 


33- 


872.5 




4-5 


34- 


943 




8-7. 


35- 


845-6 



30.85 39. 947_ 37-i8 

25-5 
5-99 40. 845.4 13.86 

61 
177.90 41. 648.4 259.60 



36. 


1025.5 




10.5 


37- 


943 




23 


38. 


8_47 




5-4 


39- 


947 




25-5 


40. 


845-4 





61 


41. 


648.4 




2-5 


42. 


6845 



115.00 42. bb45 1710.00 

4 
6.38 43- 545 86.50 

6-3 
18.25 44- 847 332.40 

2-55 
30.75 45- 679.5 '27.20 

25 
98.25 46. 875 7.00 

125 
47-75 47- 643 10.54 

61 
194.00 48. 958 14.10 

~68~ 
108.40 49. 943.4 37.70 

25 
9.00 50. 899.1 428.50 



94 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 



103 



Slide Rule Problems 
Set No. 3 — Proportion 



.11 

•32 

•21 

• 23 
.36 

• 17 
±1 

•7 
.87 

9-4 

■2l 

9-3 
.67 
•73 
3-6 
.07 
38 
•03 
4.2 

•13 



•£3 

.67 

j73 

.42 

14- 9^3 

4.8 

15- 7^ 
.81 



13 



.26 
X 

^6 
X 

.28 

~x 

.21 

x~ 

4j3 
X 

X 

•11 
X 

5j* 
X 

41 
X 

3^9 
X 
X 

93 
X_ 

•17 
X 

19 

x_ 

•13 
x_ 

•43 



Answer 
o-755 

0.487 

0.1321 

o-°3S5 

46.5 
8.0 
0.023 

28.60 
22,250.00 
546.00 
0.252 
0.0584 

33 -oo 
0.252 
3.82 



16 



17 



IQ 



20 



42 _ 
37 
03 . 
72 
18 < 
03 

IA ■ 

09 
73 . 
91 

21. 4^3 _ 
9.6 ' 

22. .08 
4.2 

23. 4^9 

6.3 ' 

24. .0$ 
1.8 ' 

25. 9^ 
.18 

26. 123 
241 

27. 361 
128 

28. 345 
409 

29. 109 
225 

30. 203 
420 



x_ 

•53 
x_ 
4.1 
x_ 
9.2 

X 

41 
x_ 

12 

x_ 

41 

•17 

X 

27 
x_ 

2.8 

x_ 

2.9 

263 

X 

235 

X 

556 

X 

150 

X 
X 

355 



Answer 
60.15 

0.171 

55-2Q 

1048.00 

9-63 

18.36 

0.00324 

21.00 

0.0467 

I54-50 

5i5-oo 

83-30 

659.00 

310.00 

171.50 



104 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



Slide Rule Problems — Continued 
Set No. 3 — Proportion 







• 


Answer 








Answer 


3i- 


35o . 


279 


419.00 


41. 


182 _ 


X 


202.00 




525 


X 






364 


404 




32. 


421 


215 


188.00 


42. 


362 


. X 


1038.00 




368 ' 


X 






178 ' 


510 




33- 


263 


no 


204.10 


43- 


421 


X 


708.00 




488 ' 


IT 






362 


609 




34- 


768 _ 


847 


357-QQ 


44. 


526 . 


X 


408.50 




324 


X 






809 ' 


628 




35- 


382 , 


409 


151.00 


45- 


708 


X 


436.00 




141 


X 






326 


201 




36. 


432 . 


517 


432.00 


46. 


5^3 . 


X 


497.00 




361 


X 






721 


685 




37- 


410 


362 


464.00 


47- 


680 


X 


53i-oo 




525 


X 






749 


' 585 




38. 


721 


533 


628.00 


48. 


498 


X 


554-oo 




849 ' 


X 






655 


728 




39- 


438 


621 


721.50 


49. 


468 


X 


339-5° 




5°9 


' ~Y 






S07 


368 




40. 


386 , 
721 


101 
~X 


189.00 


5°- 


645 
701 


X 

■ 558 


5I3-50 



When the student can readily read off the answers to all 
of these problems he should be able to take advantage of the 
slide rule in making any computations incidental to his work. 



Field Work 

The student should now be ready for the field work of 
the course — that is, the taking of studies in the factory itself 
and under actual conditions. All the work hitherto — the exer- 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 105 

cises in the use of stop-watch and slide rule, as well as the 
supplementary reading — has been done in the office under 
artificial conditions. Its purpose has been to give the student 
the necessary background and drill him until he acquired the 
necessary dexterity. Especially the exercises in the use of the 
stop-watch should have so accustomed him to its working 
mechanism as to enable him to concentrate on observing the 
operation and workman with some degree of confidence in his 
ability to make and record his observations accurately and 
rapidly. When he has reached this stage he should be given his 
first experience in actual field work. 

The taking of time studies in the factory differs in some re- 
spects from the taking of time studies in carefully planned 
exercises where the instructor acts as operator and regulates 
his pace according to the capacity of the observers. Some of 
the differences may be pointed out at the start. Others may 
only be found in practice, as the student learns to adapt him- 
self to the pace of the operator and to note immediately the use 
of an unforeseen motion. 

The recording of the readings requires close attention on 
the part of the unpracticed observer. On this account the early 
studies should be short, otherwise the novice becomes too tired 
to work accurately. Taking the studies should be alternated 
with working them up in the office. A number of studies 
should be taken on the same operation. Such a practice is 
more satisfactory than taking studies on several different oper- 
ations, since the student becomes familiar with the peculiari- 
ties of the particular job he is studying and is better able to 
check and correct his earlier errors. 

Final Tabulations 

After the instructor is satisfied that enough studies have 
been taken on the one operation, the student should be allowed 
to tabulate the results for the purpose of comparison. In actual 



io6 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



job standardization this is the last step before determining the 
standard times, viz., listing the conclusions of each study, in 
order that the final conclusions may be drawn from the results 
of all the studies. While the student is not required to draw 
full conclusions, the bringing together of all his separate tabu- 
lations gives him a clearer idea of the point to which his studies 
have been leading him. He can then compare the variation in 
the total operation times with the unit times of the elements 



BOARD OF 

CONTROL subject- 
DRESS AND 

WAIST 
INDUSTRY 



-SHEET NO.. 



COMPUTED BY- 



-CHECKED BY_ 









* 












■"" — 














































































































DATE 




































































OBSE 


RVATION 


































BOARD 


































































DNTRO 



































































Figure 20. Regulation Final Tabulation Sheet 



for each study, and analyze the causes of this variation. If 
they are caused by the "job" or the individual order, such as 
peculiarity in the pattern or the leather in a shoe, he should 
make a record of the cause and state the amount of the varia- 
tion. The final tabulation constitutes a summary of the results 
of both the field and office work. 

The sheets for final tabulation are specially ruled and con- 
tain spaces for the time found after figuring the study. On 
the. tabulation sheet are listed : the unit times of the operation; 
the total times of the operation ; the percentage of delays ; the 
variables affecting the operation, and all explanatory notes as 
indicated on the original time-study sheets. 



INTENSIVE COURSE IN TRAINING PERSONNEL 107 

Under the direction of the instructor the student should 
tabulate, on such a sheet as is shown in Figure 20, the values 
he has recorded. On this sheet the results taken from the time- 
study sheet are brought together in organized form. 

The summarizing of field and office work should be con- 
tinued on as many operations as the instructor feels will be 
valuable to the student. When this point is reached the student 
is ready to be graduated from the course and given a position 
on the staff as a regular assistant. 

Wherever there is so much to be accomplished that many 
assistants are required and the work is likely to extend over a 
long period of time, a course of this sort will prove economical. 
Not only does it reduce the length of the training period, but 
it has two further advantages perhaps even more to be desired 
— it relieves the head of the department from the task of in- 
struction and creates a staff whose standards are uniform. 
The analyst in a plant where such a plan is impracticable can 
find many features of the course — such, for example, as the 
exercises — which will be valuable to him in his attempt to 
develop a working staff. 

This intensive course of training was originally developed 
for the United States Rubber Company at their Lycoming 
plant, Williamsport, Penn. Since then a number of companies 
have undertaken the course with great success, one of these 
being the H. H. Franklin Manufacturing Company of Syra- 
cuse, N. Y. Here the students were not novices, but they had 
not been trained in the methods conducive to obtain best re- 
sults. The course brought about a unification of methods based 
on facts instead of individual judgment, as formerly. Fur- 
thermore, it made possible the standardization of the color 
varnishing operation which is one of the most exacting in 
automobile manufacture. 



CHAPTER VIII 

ENLISTING CO-OPERATION 

The Analyst's Problem 

The previous chapters have discussed the necessary quali- 
ties and training of persons who are to work out time studies 
and job analyses. And for the purpose of giving a compre- 
hensive view of the field, the way in which they are to follow 
out their training has also been briefly outlined. In this and 
the following chapters what they are to do is described in 
detail. In a word, these chapters are intended to serve as a 
guide to those acting in the capacity of analysts. 

Necessity of Co-operation in Business 

First of all the analyst should attempt to gain the cordial 
co-operation of all those affected by the conduct of analysis. 
Co-operation is necessary in undertaking any new policy or 
process in which a large number of people are concerned. 
The more intimate their concern, the more profoundly can they 
affect the policy. If forced to accept something in which they 
do not believe they will either consciously or unconsciously 
do their best to prove that it was wrong. People cannot be 
driven, they will never go far unless they are led. What is 
wanted in carrying out a new process is not mere surface 
acquiescence, but active interest. 

Job Standardization a Co-operative Undertaking 

The necessity of gaining the cordial co-operation of all 
concerned is even more marked in time study and job analysis 
than it is in introducing most innovations, because it is carried 

1 08 



ENLISTING CO-OPERATION 



109 



on directly with and through those in an organization from 
lowest to highest. It gathers together, moreover, all the im- 
pressions, traditions, and suggestions which have grown up 
in the shop, and which are the sum of the knowledge of a 
generation of workmen, both foremen and employees. All these 
it is obliged to compare, check, and supplement in the light of 
the knowledge which the analyst gains by his detailed obser- 
vations. 

It has been a popular impression that, because industrial 
engineers are concentrating on making the organization as a 
whole function with the efficiency of a perfectly constructed 
machine, they look upon the members of the organization 
merely as the component parts of such a machine — in other 
words, that they are trying to turn human beings into machines. 
Dr. Royal Meeker expressed this point of view in an address 
before the American Economic Association. 

The scientific managers have been attacked so violently 
and so frequently that I feel obliged to apologize for referring 
at this point to the most obvious and fundamental error con- 
tained in their original program. The scientific managers did 
not, in the beginning of the efficiency movement, differentiate 
between the workman and the machine or tool with which he 
worked. Men and machines were to be made to do each oper- 
ation the easiest way; that is, with the least lost motion and 
expenditure of effort. The scientific managers have not yet 
grasped fully the difference between a man and machine and 
the economy of making use of the heads of the workers as 
well as their arms and legs. 1 

In the beginning some analysts perhaps attempted to work 
along these lines. The attempt defeated its own purpose. Un- 
less job standardization is carried out as a development in 
which both employees and executives are educated to co-operate 
it cannot be fully successful and will not result in mutual 
benefit. 



Monthly Labor Review, February, 1920. 



HO TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Preliminaries of Co-operation 

At this point the analyst must direct his attention chiefly 
to enlisting the co-operation of the superintendent and the fore- 
men. It is assumed that by retaining the analyst the manage- 
ment has expressed its confidence in job standardization and 
has adopted standardization methods as a business policy. The 
manager of manufacturing, sometimes designated as the works 
manager, the general manager, or the agent, is the man who 
controls the policies of the plant and represents the manage- 
ment in the manufacturing end of the enterprise. If this man, 
as is sometimes the case, fails to recognize the desirability of 
the policy adopted by the board of directors, or considers this 
policy a personal reflection upon his ability, and so maintains 
a neutral attitude, it is very difficult for the analyst to hope 
to enlist the co-operation of those lower in rank, for the atti- 
tude of the man in charge permeates the entire organization. 

This fact was illustrated very forcibly in a large manu- 
facturing plant where the officials of the company became 
interested in scientific management and retained an expert to 
instal the system in their plant. The manager of manufac- 
turing was, of course, consulted, but having worked himself 
up from the bottom he did not see how any outsider could 
understand the work. Nevertheless, he thought if the officials 
decided that the work should be done, he would not str.nd in 
the way of their benefitting as much as possible by the change. 
Although the first operation to be standardized was compara- 
tively simple, remaining practically unchanged so that the 
standards could be developed readily, and affected only one 
machine and two operatives, it took nearly six months of 
endeavor on the part of the analyst to make the standards on 
this machine effective. It seemed as though every conceivable 
complication arose during this period to prove that the stand- 
ards could not be met, although in the end persistent work won 
the day. 



ENLISTING CO-OPERATION III 

Several years later the manager of manufacturing faced 
a serious problem of increasing production on the most impor- 
tant of all the operations in the plant. If he could not meet 
it he would have to buy more machinery and build to accommo- 
date the increase. In this emergency the results of standard- 
ization appealed to him, and he induced the company to retain 
the analyst who had done the first job. The second task was 
the most difficult the analyst had ever come across in all his 
years of practice, and it required some months of intensive 
work, with the aid of several assistants, to complete the studies. 
When everything was ready, and the first employee was about 
to be started on the new standards, the workmen put their 
heads together and decided that they would not accept them. 
The analyst explained the situation to the manager of manu- 
facturing. The manager at once called into his office the first 
man to be started and himself told him that he had followed 
the work of the analyst and was convinced that the standards 
were correct and that if the workman went ahead according 
to instruction he knew he would find them so. The workman 
accordingly did the work and found that the standards were 
right, and with the knowledge that the manager of manufac- 
turing was back of the standards, other workmen were started 
one by one without the slightest objection. 

Employees and the Preliminary Campaign 

The employees or "operatives" are not considered in this 
preliminary campaign for enlisting co-operation. The attitude 
of the employees at the outset is almost always determined by 
the attitude of the superintendent and the foreman. Winning 
over the superintendent and foreman means enlisting the 
interest of the employees, at least in part, except in cases where 
the employees are highly organized in unions sufficiently strong 
to have a voice in determining policy. The employees must 
be won over by the attitude of the analyst during the time he 



112 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

is actually making the studies and is in close contact with them. 
Their good-will and friendship will be tested when he is 
applying the standards, at which time he will work most inti- 
mately with them. 

The work of the analyst in this preliminary step, accord- 
ingly, centers upon two people, the superintendent and the 
foreman. 

Winning the Superintendent 

When a change is being introduced, it should be in every 
case through the natural channels of authority. The process 
superintendent represents the authority in the factory. He is 
the power with which the foremen come in contact, and he 
stands to them for the conservative, well-established source 
of control. They will listen to what he has to say when they 
would look upon a stranger with suspicion. If his faith in 
job standardization is shaky, theirs will be still more so, but 
if his faith is strong it will serve to dispel their doubt. An 
able superintendent who comes to realize the value of time 
study can be depended upon to get the idea across to the fore- 
men, and through the foremen to the workmen. 

Before starting even the preliminaries of job standardiza- 
tion the analyst should therefore hold a conference with the 
superintendent in order to explain to him fully the principles 
and practice of the work. This conference should be held 
when possible in the superintendent's office, or in any place 
which seems suitable, except the factory. If it is held in the 
factory the conversation is likely to be overheard by the work- 
men, and may possibly be misconstrued. 

Points for Superintendent 

Although what is said in the conference must obviously 
be adapted to the personality and peculiar interests of the 
particular man, there are some points which the nature of his 



ENLISTING CO-OPERATION 



113 



position cannot fail to make of interest to him. The points 
which should be brought out in conference are : 

1. How to discover the best methods of production. 

2. How to get on an equitable basis of wage payment. 

Methods of Production 

In order to convince the superintendent .that study is 
desirable in "his" factory so as to work out a complete plan for 
the best method of turning out the product, the following 
points may be brought to his attention : 

1. In every business detailed study is necessary to find 

the best method of operating. 

2. The best method can be found by analyzing each oper- 

ation as performed by the different employees. 

3. The best layout for each job can also be found only 

by detailed analysis. 

4. The foreman does not know what are the best methods 

because he has neither the time nor the facts. 

The best method of performing each operation — i.e., the 
method which requires the minimum of energy and material — 
can be determined only by detailed study. An observation of 
other concerns shows that there is great variation in the out- 
put of the workman, and this is probably due in large part to 
a lack of any systematic plan. So long as the concern has no 
idea of its cause or cure, the variation in output is sure to 
continue, regardless of whether the employees are on piece or 
day work. The way to determine the best methods is to work 
up a study of each operation as it is being performed by the 
different employees. 

The records of performance also show that some em- 
ployees turn out more, or better, work than others and conse- 
quently earn more money when on piecework. Although 
they all appear to be doing the operation in the same way, the 



II4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

appearance is deceiving. The foreman will simply explain it 
by saying that there are "good workers" and "poor workers" 
and let it go at that. But all the employees can be made better 
workers if the reason is found for the difference between the 
good and the poor. In order to do this, it is necessary to 
analyze in detail for a sufficiently long period of time in just 
what way one employee is capable of doing more work than 
another with no more effort, and sometimes with less. 

The same sort of detailed analysis shows the best layout 
for each job. It may be that two operations at present done 
by two employees could be combined to advantage, eliminating 
one "picking up and laying down of the stock," and thereby 
saving the time and energy of the workmen and keeping the 
stock from becoming soiled and shopworn. On the other hand, 
perhaps it would be better to split the operations one step fur- 
ther, by keeping a separate moveman busy handling stock in 
the most expeditious way. 

It is customary to assume that the foreman is looking after 
such problems ; but he usually has so many immediate difficul- 
ties that he cannot spare the time necessary for detailed analy- 
sis. If we ask the foreman or the employees, we will nnd 
that, although they all have their impressions — generally, of 
course, in favor of the way in which the work is being handled 
at present — no one has any facts with which to back up an 
impression. 

Equitable Basis of Wage Payment 

The superintendent is especially concerned with the prob- 
lem of wage adjustment. If the factory is largely on day 
work, the output is probably small. If it is on piecework, the 
employees are probably dissatisfied and keep asserting that the 
rates are unfair. As one group after another brings pressure 
to bear for an increase in pay, while the wages of the less 
militant groups remain at the old level, the whole organization 



ENLISTING CO-OPERATION 



115 



is gradually roused to a feeling of antagonism toward the 
management. 

The trouble is that the question of an equitable adjustment 
of wages, is, like everything else, left to opinion. In a factory 
making coats, sweaters, and outside garments, the analyst 
found that the piecework rates on two styles of garments — 
style 238 (Ladies' Riding Breeches) and style 523 (Coat) — 
were respectively $2.64 and $12 per dozen garments. .Analysis 
through time study and job analysis, showed that the time 
necessary to manufacture these two different styles of garments 
was practically the same ; one requiring 30.2 minutes and the 
other 32.4. 

Although this is an extreme case of the results of setting 
piece rates by guess, it represents in an accentuated form the 
sort of injustice that is being done wherever there is no careful 
study made of the operations entering into production. 

The only way to find any just basis for a fair adjustment 
of pay throughout the factory is to make an analysis of the 
factors involved in each operation, such as experience, appli- 
cation, and danger involved. The relative proportions of all 
the factors, especially of the time factor, which is the yardstick 
measure of production, should be the basis in determining 
and paying equitable wages. This basis can be determined 
only by detailed analysis of each operation. Payment of equit- 
able wages is one of the most important factors in bringing 
about good relations between employers and employees. 

Convincing the Foreman 

The superintendent is the first man who should take up the 
matter with the foreman of the department in which job stand- 
ardization is to be introduced. He should pass on to the fore- 
man the gist of his talk with the analyst. If the superintendent 
has faith in the analyst and is enthusiastic over the prospect 
of obtaining results, the foreman will be convinced that the 



n6 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

plan is not merely the notion of an office-chair theorist and 
will become interested in doing his own part. 

It has been said that the chain of management is no stronger 
than its weakest foreman link. The same is true of co-opera- 
tion and good-will which the management wishes to establish 
for job standardization. The employees will sense at once 
their foreman's attitude toward the new order and his attitude 
will be the attitude of his department. 

In the finishing department of a large mill where an analyst 
was working, the foreman had frequently said that time study 
and job analysis was the best method he had ever seen and that 
he endorsed it without qualification. Strange to say, however, 
the analyst found that unless he followed every move of the 
workmen, which was impossible in a department of three 
hundred employees and some thirty different operations, they 
would not do the work in the standard time. When the fore- 
man looked over the daily records with the analyst, he could, 
in some cases, give a reason for this or that failure, but could 
not understand the universally poor records. This condition 
continued for some time, although the analyst, the superin- 
tendent, and to all appearances the foreman, were trying to 
find the reason why the employees should make the standards 
every time they were watched, but never when free from obser- 
vation. Finally the foreman made the mistake of taking a 
vacation, and during his absence the truth came out ; although 
he had never actually told his workmen that they might lie 
down on the job whenever possible, he had shown by his 
manner that he hoped the standards would not work, because 
he wanted to reinstate the method which let him set the rates 
by guess, thereby being a good fellow with all his men. 

Respect for Foreman's Authority 

Some foremen are jealous of their authority and quick to 
resent the least encroachment upon it. Any modification in 



ENLISTING CO-OPERATION 117 

the conduct of their departments, even if it is something which 
under past conditions they could not have been expected to 
attend to, is likely to appear to them as a slur on their ability, 
which is of course the last thing intended. On this account, 
their authority should be referred to wherever possible. Es- 
specially they should be assured that nothing will be done with- 
out consulting them and no order given except through them. 

The Talk to Foreman 

The talk with the superintendent prepares the foreman for 
details and instructions from the analyst. When possible, 
some particular operation in his own department should be 
pointed out to him where a detailed study might show possi- 
bilities of improvement. This is where the experience of the 
analyst is of extreme importance, for whether or not he has 
ever seen the particular machines or operations before, he will 
be able to point out how the type of improvement which they 
are talking over can actually be applied and with what results. 
The analyst does not make the suggestion as a fully developed 
workable plan, but indicates the method by which this or that 
idea may be tried with the result either of developing some im- 
provements from the experiment, or of proving the existing 
method to be the best under the conditions. 

Certain points are of more immediate concern to the fore- 
man than to the superintendent, and these should be taken up 
very carefully : 

1. Job standardization increases the foreman's value to 

the company and therefore to himself. 

2. Job standardization does not interfere with production. 

3. Changes will be made through the foreman. 

4. Employees will be chosen with the foreman's advice 

and. knowledge. 

5. Quality standards will be maintained either by stand- 

ardization or inspection. 



ng TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

A foreman is, in most cases, a practical workman who has 
shown executive ability. He is a foreman because of his 
knowledge and ability to instruct and represent the employees 
on the one hand and on the other hand to safeguard and repre- 
sent the owner's interests. This dual position, no doubt, 
accounts in a large degree for the multiplicity of details which 
are shouldered on him. Under the older types of management 
it is the rule rather than the exception to find the foreman 
burdened with clerical records of timekeeping and production, 
together with responsibilities for hiring and firing, making 
minor repairs to machines, belts, and equipment, trying to get 
stock and materials from the department ahead in order to keep 
his workmen busy or trying to unload the finished work on the 
department following in order to make room in which to work. 
A few minutes reflection will show the absurdity of expecting 
any one man to perform this multiplicity of functions. 

Under the new methods of management the work is func- 
tionalized by having the clerical part of it done by clerical 
specialists, the hiring and firing by the employment specialist, 
the repairs by the repair specialist, thus leaving to the fore- 
man the actual directing, instructing, and developing of the 
workmen, so that he may get the maximum quantity and 
quality of work. The analyst works with the foreman in 
developing standards which the workman can maintain day by 
day and year by year. 

The foreman's chief concern is to keep up production. 
Every foreman has learned by experience that production drops 
every time any change, no matter how slight, is made. What 
then will happen to his production if, as the analyst has prob- 
ably indicated, changes are made that involve experimentation? 
The argument, therefore, that the studies may interfere with 
production is often the foreman's chief reason for objecting 
to the experiments. Analysts uniformly find that the process 
of job standardization need never reduce production; in fact, 



ENLISTING CO-OPERATION 



119 



it generally increases production even while studies are being 
taken, because careful observation of an employee tends to 
make him concentrate. Changes in the method of operating 
should not be made just before time studies are started because 
any change reduces a workman's output until he becomes 
accustomed to the new methods. If the preliminary study 
shows that the method of operating should be changed radi- 
cally, then the workman should be allowed to learn the new 
method thoroughly before studies are started. In most cases 
it is not necessary even to make minor changes in the method 
of operating in order to try out what may seem a saving in 
time, for, if the studies are taken in minute detail, tied in 
properly with full notes (by the analyst), it is often possible 
to determine beforehand whether or not the change will be 
advisable. Such an estimate will probably prove more accurate 
than a study of the operation as performed according to the 
new method by a workman unfamiliar with the new technique. 

The Foreman's Authority 

Any change desired, no matter how small, should be taken 
up with the foreman and acted upon only through his order. 
Not only does this lessen the possibility of changes interfering 
with production, but it contributes to the foreman's authority 
in the room. The foreman is its sole head, and his authority 
is in no way superseded by the authority of the analyst. The 
analyst works with the foreman as well as with the employees, 
so that any changes which look as if they should be tried out 
are known to the foreman; accordingly there arises a kind of 
mutual interest which generally eliminates the necessity for 
having the foreman go to the workmen and instruct them to 
work under the order of the analyst. If, however, the work- 
man should refuse to work under the analyst, it would almost 
invariably be found that the cause of refusal was some feeling 
of antagonism between the analyst and the foreman. Such a 



I20 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

situation, besides being uncomfortable, protracts the processes 
of job standardization. 

The Foreman's Knowledge of Employees 

The employees studied should be chosen with the knowledge 
and advice of the foreman. His recommendations as to the 
employees on whom the first studies should be taken should 
be given careful consideration by the analyst. Those whom 
a foreman calls his "best workers" may turn out not to make 
use of the best methods, but may be expert only because of long 
experience. Usually a foreman is a pretty good judge of the 
strong and the weak points of his workmen. Talking these 
points over with the foreman gives the analyst an inside track 
both in dealing with the workman and in making allowances 
for the personal equation when he works up his studies. 

Maintaining Quality Standards 

In most industries quality standards are not established on 
a basis of definiteness, but are the result of the impressions 
of executives and workmen. For every article, of course, 
there must be some standard of quality to determine accepta- 
bility, but where the demand is greater than the supply, the 
quality standard can be somewhat lower than when the demand 
is less than the supply. Even under normal conditions the 
quality standard fluctuates slightly from time to time, depend- 
ing upon the amount of time which has elapsed since the last 
complaint. The foreman, having an intimate experience of 
these conditions, realizes that the quality factor is most impor- 
tant and is fearful lest any plan which is developed to induce 
workmen to turn out more work may cause them to overdo 
and lower the quality of the goods manufactured. A mechan- 
ism must be provided by the analyst to safeguard just this 
condition so that quality is at least maintained. In actual ex- 
perience, the quality is, if anything, slightly improved. 



ENLISTING CO-OPERATION 121 

Quality through Standardization 

It is sometimes possible to devise mechanical methods of 
maintaining the quality, which give as good results as those 
obtained by employing specialized workmen at a large expense. 

The operation of spraying buttons is a good illustration. 
The ivory buttons worn on men's and women's suits are white 
in their original state and are afterward dyed to match the 
colors of the suits. Many of these buttons are of a uniform 
color, generally black. These buttons are dyed in much the 
same way as a film is developed. Other buttons, especially 
those on ladies' suits, serve as much for ornament as for use, 
and must be made up to look more attractive than if dyed one 
flat tone, and are therefore shaded, mottled or worked out in 
elaborate designs. Fancy buttons are dyed by being sprayed 
with the desired colors, each shade being given a separate appli- 
cation of the spray. The buttons are first put in rows on a 
board equipped with protruding pms which go through the 
holes in the buttons and keep them m place. Then a stencil is 
placed over the buttons to give the desired pattern, and the 
color is applied at a uniform speed. The speed and the number 
of "strokes," or movements of the spray, for each row vary 
according to the design and the color. A stencil with wide spaces 
requires less number of strokes than one with narrow spaces. 

In this case the analyst studied the requirements of the 
different colors and designs and drew up a stencil chart setting 
standards as to the speed with which each pattern was to be 
sprayed and the number of stencil strokes to the row. A 
metronome was used to measure the time of the strokes. The 
setting of definite standards for each design made it possible 
for the ordinary workman to do the work which had previously 
been done by special workmen. This plan developed all-round 
workmen, with the result that a reduction of the force was 
made possible, and a quality provided that was as good or 
even better than before. 



I22 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Quality by Inspection 

In other cases a system of inspection may be installed to 
guard against the employees' neglecting quality for quantity. 
This is specially desirable where defects can be detected at once. 
The result is that although production is increased, quality is 
not lowered. The increase in production from the introduction 
of exact rates will almost always be large enough to very much 
more than pay the wages of the inspector. 

Final Effect on Foreman 

If the analyst's work is well done the foreman will be con- 
vinced before long that the new plan of production standards 
is not a mere process of speeding up, but a means of putting 
into effect the best methods of performance possible under 
existing conditions. 

The following telegram received from a foreman who had 
formerly been, as he states it, "bitterly opposed" to the new 
methods of management, shows how even the men who at first 
consider these methods most impractical will be won over 
when they see the results. This telegram was in response to 
a manufacturer who was skeptical of the claim that the fore- 
man and employees could be converted to scientific manage- 
ment and who wanted a direct statement from a foreman. 
As it was felt that a letter would allow the foreman too much 
opportunity to conceal his true sentiments he was asked to 
telegraph the statement of his opinion of the new methods, 
which had been in effect in his factory for a period of two 
years. 

When the Taylor system was started at the Eastern Manu- 
facturing Company two years ago I had been employed by the 
company in various capacities for eighteen years and at that 
time was foreman of the finishing department. I thought I 
knew all the best methods of handling work in my particular 
line and naturally resented the idea that any outsider could 



ENLISTING CO-OPERATION 123 

come in and make any improvements in our methods. During 
the first year no one could have opposed the system more bit- 
terly than I because I believed it to be an impractical, costly 
and almost impossible method to use in our business. I would 
admit that it might be used in some lines but never in the 
paper business. 

At the present my position is production man of the finish- 
ing department. We are putting through the department at 
less cost at least 33 1-3 per cent more work than ever before. 
Our planning department is working smoothly and the work 
goes through the shop with scarcely a hitch. Our customers 
are kept satisfied because their orders are shipped on the date 
promised. The idea of going back to the old method would 
be very distasteful to both the employees and myself. The 
employees are better satisfied because they are earning nearly 
50 per cent more money with scarcely any greater effort. I 
will add that you have asked me to state the case just as I 
feel without any prejudice for or against the system. 

H. H. Hackett. 

When the superintendent and the foreman are back of the 
work and the employees are predisposed in its favor by the 
attitude of their foreman, the analyst will find that he can 
proceed smoothly with the actual time-study work knowing 
that nothing need stand in the way of complete success. 



CHAPTER IX 

RELATION OF PHASES 
IN JOB STANDARDIZATION 

Time Element in Analysis 

The most difficult question ever asked the analyst by the 
management is, "How long will it take to complete the analysis 
work on this or that operation?" There are always so many 
factors involved that any definite estimate in a particular case 
is extremely difficult. Discussion of the topic in generalized 
terms is even more difficult, inasmuch as different operations 
even in the same plant differ radically. It is possible, however, 
to note some of the variables which occur constantly and 
result in variation of time values, and arrive at some sort of 
tentative working generalization. 

Both the amount of time required to make a study of one 
operation and the distribution of time between the four phases 
of the study — preliminary work, taking the times, analyzing 
the studies and setting the standards, and putting the stand- 
ards into effect — are mainly dependent upon two factors : the 
experience of the analyst, and the complication of the variables. 

Time and the Analyst 

The competence of the analyst influences in many ways 
the amount of time required to make a study. The time taken 
depends to a large extent upon whether he is experienced or 
only a beginner; whether his experience covers more than the 
business he is studying; whether he has personal knowledge 
of that business ; whether he is prone to work theoretically or 
mechanically; whether he has a far-sighted or near-sighted 
point of view. 

124 



RELATION OF PHASES IN JOB STANDARDIZATION 125 

Need of Experienced Analyst 

Probably in no other line of business can the practical 
expert be distinguished so readily from the man who poses as 
an expert. The inexperienced man may do a great deal of 
talking and make a great many promises, but he is likely to 
attack only the high spots and risk upsetting the organization 
in an attempt to reach conclusions that soon prove none too 
sound. The trained analyst, on the contrary, plans his work 
so as to enlist the help of the organization in making changes 
of permanent value. 

Experience in many lines of business is a large asset to an 
analyst. While it is true that every business is different, it is 
surprising to note the points of similarity in entirely unrelated 
businesses. For instance, both in making rubber shoes and 
in coating paper a so-called calender machine is used, and 
although the materials going through the machine are totally 
different and their ultimate purposes are different, the exper- 
ience of a certain analyst in setting standards for the calender 
used in coating paper helped him to handle the problem of 
calendering rubber fabrics. 

Confidence in the Analyst 

The presence of the analyst in the factory shows that he 
has at least the good-will of the management. He must, how- 
ever, have more than this — he must have their confidence. 
They must take his word, because they cannot expect to be 
able to review in detail his mass of data and check his recom- 
mendations before accepting them. Moreover the analyst, 
although the representative of the management and paid by 
them, must enjoy the confidence of superintendent, foreman 
and workmen. He must prove to all these men that he can 
be entrusted with the results of their thoughts and experiences, 
which have accumulated through years of practical experience, 
and that he will use this material for his informants' good 



126 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

as well as for the good of the company. The ideal plan, of 
course, would be for the analyst to be employed and paid 
jointly by both management and workmen. It has been proved 
many times, however, that a man of the right training and 
make-up can represent adequately the workmen and their inter- 
ests even though he is paid only by the management. 

"Make-Up" of the Analyst 

Everyone has natural inclinations and it is, therefore, not 
at all strange when an analyst leans too strongly to theory or 
to merely mechanical methods. Some analysts try to determine 
general standards for an operation as quickly as possible in 
order to get tangible results and then having applied a coarse- 
tooth comb they go over the proposition again with a finer 
comb, making, if necessary, a research to determine the very 
best practice possible. Other analysts are of opinion that a 
fine-tooth comb should be applied at the start. This choice of 
methods, of course, has material effect upon the time required 
to accomplish the work. 

Variables in Standardization 

A cursory examination of a given operation often is not 
sufficient to show exactly how much time will be required to 
establish the standards for a particular operation. After a 
number of studies have been taken they may reveal the relative 
unimportance of variables which at first loomed large, or on 
the other hand, the importance of some complication not evi- 
dent at the outset. Apparently simple operations sometimes 
have a number of variables which are hard to determine, mak- 
ing necessary many more studies than had been counted upon. 

Unexpected Variables 

Frequently what seemed at first a simple operation is found 
to be quite involved, because the material which is being worked 



RELATION OF PHASES IN JOB STANDARDIZATION 127 

with has no denned standards. Painting automobile bodies 
is a case in point. In this work perfect evenness in laying on 
the paint so that no excess or unevenness of the applied mate- 
rial shall show is so largely dependent upon the skill of the 
workman that to standardize the work seems almost im- 
possible. 

On some other operations the machine and tools which are 
being used, may be found to have so large a bearing on the 
situation that the analyst will have to consider the advisability 
of first undertaking special research. This was the case on the 
operation of wire drawing, where it was necessary to first in- 
vent machinery in order to make uniform dies. 

Occasionally it is advisable to study the operations that 
precede the one under attention in order to see whether it is 
practicable to make changes in the division of the work. This 
delays for a considerable period the setting of standards on 
the original operation and renders worthless any previous 
estimate of the time required. For instance, in studying the 
operation of cementing the edges of one of the parts of white 
canvas shoes it was found, after a number of studies had 
been taken, that by a change in the method of cutting and 
assembling the pieces so as to keep all the "rights" together in 
one group and all the "lefts" in another instead of pairing 
each "right" with the corresponding "left" as had previously 
been the case, it would be possible to complete not only the 
operation under study but several of the operations following 
in at least 25 per cent less time. In view of the results the 
fact that standardizing the operation took about twice as long 
as given in the original estimate made little difference. 

Occasionally, however, a surprise is in store for the analyst 
when some operation turns out to be far simpler than anyone 
imagined or when a certain element corresponds to others 
which have already been studied and the results in the one 
case can be applied in the others. 



I2 8 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Infrequent Variables 

Another thing which upsets all calculations as to the time 
required to make the studies is the fact that on some operations 
there are certain variables which occur infrequently. This may 
necessitate delay in setting the standards until such time as 
these variables occur and can be studied. In a case of this 
kind there are two methods of procedure : 

i. To set the standards for the variables which have al- 
ready been studied, and later make a study of the 
other variables when they appear. 

2. To hold in abeyance the standard on the operation until 
the other variables can be taken into account. 

On account of the delays resulting from the infrequent oc- 
currence of certain variables it is always most economical to 
take simultaneous studies on several operations. This prevents 
loss of time in waiting for a special kind of stock or material 
which it is expected will cover all conditions of the operation. 

In the clothing industry, for instance, there is considerable 
variation due to the fact that the cloth used for summer goods 
is of a different character from the cloth used for winter 
goods. The two classes of goods naturally are not manufac- 
tured at the same time. If the winter goods are studied first, 
it may require, on the operation of cutting the parts of the 
garment from the bolt of cloth, from three to four months of 
the time of one analyst and one clerk to determine the stand- 
ards. On the summer goods, which will be made six months 
later, standards can probably be determined in about a month, 
because it is possible to make use of much of the data already 
obtained on the winter goods. 

Relative Time for Four Phases 

In predetermining the amount of time it will require to 
standardize an operation the analyst takes into account con- 



RELATION OF PHASES IN JOB STANDARDIZATION 129 

sciously or unconsciously the relative amount of time required 
on each of the four phases noted in Chapter III. 

On most operations the third phase — analyzing the studies 
and setting the standards — takes the longest time. That phase 
should, therefore, be used as a basis for comparison. In gen- 
eral, the relation existing between the various phases of time 
study and job analysis is : 

Phase I. (Preliminary.) This phase takes from 1/10 

to 1/20 as long as phase III. 
Phase II. (Taking.) This phase takes from 1/2 to 1/3 

as long as phase III. 
Phase III. (Analyzing.) Basis for Comparison. 
Phase IV. (Applying.) This phase takes from 1/2 to 

1/3 as long as phase III. 

1. Preliminary Work. The amount of time required in the 
preliminary work differs greatly according as : ( 1 ) The opera- 
tion to be studied is the first one in a particular plant, or the 
first one in the department where the nature of the work is 
different from that in other departments where studies have 
already been taken; (2) the operation to be studied follows 
or precedes some other operation already studied. 

In the first case the preliminary work requires a study not 
only of the operation to be studied but a study — less search- 
ing in character — of the operations immediately following and 
preceding the one in question. Although in many cases this 
precaution may be unnecessary, it forestalls realizing at a later 
date that certain changes in the operation might have been made 
at the beginning instead of taking studies on a method found 
to be uneconomical. The preliminary work in this case will 
take from one-half to one-quarter of the time of phase III. 

The preliminary work after the first operation has been 
studied requires ordinarily not more than an hour's time. In 



I3 o TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

some cases where the operation is closely related to some other 
operation already studied, this preliminary work can be dis- 
pensed with entirely. 

2. Taking the Times. The phase of "taking the times" is 
something more than the layman's understanding of simply 
going out once or twice into the factory and recording the ele- 
ments of an operation and the corresponding time of each 
element. The actual recording of readings on the time-study 
sheet is generally not more than i/io of the total time charge- 
able to this second phase. Practically every factory, even the 
one manufacturing a single product, has different grades, 
sizes or classes of stock it manufactures, or some other differ- 
ence in the product, which means that studies have to be taken 
under each condition. At first the studies can be made on 
any kind of stock on which the employee happens to be work- 
ing, but later the observer may have to wait until the stock 
not yet considered is in process. He will also have to make 
many trips to the factory, and on each trip time will be con- 
sumed in starting the study or waiting until the workman 
begins the particular grade to be studied. One way in which 
an experienced analyst saves time in this phase, is by not wait- 
ing for the employee to finish the job he had started before 
the analyst arrived but by commencing at once to take the 
time of the elements the employee is working on. The execu- 
tive should bear in mind that the total amount of time as 
actually shown on the sheets does not represent the total time 
required to obtain the studies; in fact, the total time in- 
cludes time to arrange conditions, talking to workman, etc., 
which amounts to at least ten times the amount of time 
recorded. 

Much of the routine work of taking studies, however, can 
be handled by an assistant whose time is less valuable than 
the analyst's. In comparing the time taken to get results with 
the results obtained, this fact also should be kept in mind. 



RELATION OF PHASES IN JOB STANDARDIZATION 131 

It has already been pointed out that there is not a definite 
limit to the number of studies which may be made on an opera- 
tion. One operation may require only a dozen studies, while 
another may require a hundred. The character of the work 
and the variables determine the required number. In the inter- 
ests of economy it is naturally desirable to cut down the num- 
ber as far as possible, which may often be done by urging 
that distracting conditions be corrected or by not attempting 
to make studies of conditions which very rarely occur. 

3. Analysing the Studies and Setting the Standards. The 
third phase of job standardization may be compared to the 
process in the human body of digesting and assimilating food 
after it has been cut up into small enough pieces by mastica- 
tion. While, however, the human body functions in a miracu- 
lous way in digesting and assimilating the food we eat without 
any conscious or physical exertion on our part, the digesting 
of studies cannot be accomplished in this way. To perform 
this most important work requires training, patience and con- 
centration. 

The reason for the usual lack of appreciation of the work 
involved in this phase of job standardization arises from the 
commonness of so-called "rate-setting" — i.e., determining piece 
rates by guess or by testing out a few jobs or by taking the 
cost figures of past performance — where the executive often 
turns over the data to some minor clerk for an answer. Why, 
then, he feels, cannot the job of analyzing the studies and 
setting the standards be assigned to almost any clerk and con- 
clusions drawn therefrom in a few days? 

The time studies which have been taken are full of mute 
evidence. It is the job of the analyst to take each element and 
study in relation to the element preceding and the element 
following, as well as in its relation to the operation as a whole. 
This may be best accomplished by some kind of tabulation or 
by entering the time of each element on co-ordinate or cross- 



I3 2 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

section paper so as to show graphically its relation to every 
other point. The plotting of points one by one will, in many 
cases, change what look like many unrelated points into a well 
defined line showing definite relations existing between them. 
In cases where the proper relation cannot be determined or 
where it is questionable, the analyst is obliged to take studies 
which will either confirm his tentative conclusion or make 
possible the determining of a correct conclusion. 

It is to the interest of both the manufacturer and the em- 
ployees to arrive at conclusions or results as soon as possible in 
order to get the benefits therefrom, but on the other hand the 
greatest care should be taken to guard against drawing con- 
clusions from too few studies. The analyst is in the position 
of a judge in a court of law who must be able to have the 
evidence brought before him, weigh it pro and con, and in 
spite of pressure from one side or both reserve decision until 
definite proof is obtained. At the same time he must systemati- 
cally analyze and compare that coming in with that already 
in. Finally comes a time after the evidence has been checked 
and rechecked when the analyst, like the judge, is satisfied 
beyond a doubt that his conclusions are correct. Then and 
not until then does he announce his decision. 

The verdict in a law case is worked up with all necessary 
amplifications and qualifications so that nothing may be left to 
the imagination. Finally it is typed on special legal size sheets 
of paper, properly bound and certified. In a somewhat analo- 
gous manner the analyst puts down his conclusions in clear 
and clean-cut instructions covering exact methods of operat- 
ing, effect of the variables involved, tools and equipment to 
be used under each condition, and so on, so that these instruc- 
tions can be easily made use of and will not be misinterpreted. 
They are then appropriately typed, filed and indexed. 

In the operation of placing a number of layers of cloth one 
on top of another as in the case of manufacturing clothing in 



RELATION OF PHASES IN JOB STANDARDIZATION 133 

large quantities, it did not require a great deal of time to take 
the studies ; but it was found in tabulating the results that the 
character of the cloth was difficult to classify. Some materials 
pull readily without distorting the cloth as it is pulled and 
evened off on the table, other materials have a fuzzy surface 
and stick to the cloth already on the table. Some kinds of 
cloth need to have the wrinkles straightened out carefully while 
the cloth is being laid, whereas other kinds give little trouble 
of this sort. 

4. Applying the Standards. The fourth phase of job 
standardization, namely, applying the standards, consists of 
instructing the employees and keeping track of their progress 
and the results they accomplish until they are producing the 
work in accordance with the standards that have been set. If 
the operation is one in which only one or two employees are 
working and they are both first-class men the analyst will not 
have to spend, in all, more than a day's time on the matter. 
If, however, the operation is one in which the method of doing 
the work has been changed considerably, it may require all the 
analyst's time as well as that of an assistant and an instructor, 
for a period of a week or two, to get even one or two of the 
employees to produce the work in the time set. Then, an- 
other employee or two may be started who may require a 
somewhat similar period of instruction; but as one workman 
after another is taken on, the amount of time required of the 
analyst and instructor will become less for each man. 

In applying the standards the person assigned to this work 
must be able to hold the good-will of the workmen in order to 
get them to work under the new standards. The analyst could 
not possibly learn to do expertly every operation he studies 
and standardizes so that a second person, namely, a practical 
workman, whether he is a foreman, inspector, or a man at 
the machine, must help in instructing the new men starting on 
the operation. 



I 3 4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

The employee upon whom the original studies were taken 
is, of course, familiar with what the analyst is doing and 
through this intimate relation sees the necessity for the changes. 
In fact, where the effected changes are the combined efforts 
of the men and the analyst, often the men actually work out 
the details themselves. In such a case the amount of time 
required in "applying the standards" is not so important. 

Results of Curtailing Required Time 

A well-known engineer of large experience in installing 
systems made the boast at one of the plants in which he was 
assisting that he could determine the standard for any one 
operation in a single day. He demonstrated his ability to do 
this by setting up a standard on an operation which was quite 
simple. After several weeks' endeavor on the part of the com- 
pany to get their employees to come up to the standard he set 
it was found necessary to have the operation restudied and 
new standards set. 

In this case the engineer did not realize his lack of experi- 
ence with job standardization, nor did he realize the difficulty 
of the work; consequently, he was unable to establish standards 
that could be consistently lived up to. 

The operation was restudied by an analyst who took into 
consideration all the variables. After several days of his full 
time, and about half a week's time of an assistant, new stan- 
dards were set. These were put into effect by starting one 
employee at a time until all of the employees were convinced 
of the correctness of the standards. The effect upon the work- 
men of having to change the standard times, in fact, the effect 
upon the whole factory, was detrimental to the idea that 
standards could be determined accurately. It took months of 
earnest work on the part of the officials of the company as 
well as of the analyst who did the work fully to convince the 
employees that the new standards were correct. 



RELATION OF PHASES IN JOB STANDARDIZATION 135 

It is well to remember that the output of an operation, the 
cost of that output, together with the compensation of the em- 
ployees, will be based upon the results of the analyst's con- 
clusions. Both the employer and the employees are affected 
by the analyst's decisions. In justice to both it is advisable to 
conduct an analysis so carefully, so thoroughly, and with such 
exactness that the conclusions may serve as a genuinely scien- 
tific basis for the standard output. 



CHAPTER X 

MAKING THE PRELIMINARY STUDY 

Purpose of Preliminary Study 

Before starting to make time studies the analyst will need 
to make a preliminary study for the following purposes : 
i. To understand the essentials of the operation. 

2. To find out present methods of operating. 

3. To set standards for machines. 

4. To find out what has been accomplished under these 

methods in order to compare records before and 
after the operation has been analyzed. 

Essentials in the Operation 

In order to grasp thoroughly an operation it is necessary 
to understand the correlation of the various factors of produc- 
tion involved in it. The relation of the factors to each other 
is discussed in a general way in Chapter XXI. It is stated 
there that one of the chief duties of the analyst is to decide 
which factors present the possibility of the greatest saving. 
The time for deciding this important matter is during the 
preliminary study. These factors are : 

1. The characteristics of the workman. 

2. Standards of quality to be maintained. 

3. The material worked upon. 

4. Machines and equipment. 

Studying the Workman 

The characteristics of the operation are tempered by the 
characteristics of the employees performing it. Therefore one 

136 



MAKING THE PRELIMINARY STUDY 137 

of the first things to do is to study the workman. To facilitate 
this study the names and numbers of all employees should be 
listed. 

The Skilled Employee 

It is especially important to note the skill of the different 
employees. When mention is made of a skilled employee, it is 
not an exceptional case that is referred to. "The skilled em- 
ployee" may be defined as one fitted to his work, who is experi- 
enced and conscientious as well as reasonably deft. Too often 
even the foreman picks out an employee as skilled because he 
apparently works fast and is always doing something. These 
indications are no gage, as was illustrated conclusively on a 
brick-laying job. The foreman picked out one of his men as 
the best man he had. To watch this man laying bricks, prob- 
ably anyone would have come to practically the same conclu- 
sion, for he moved at a rate 25 per cent faster than the other 
bricklayers and was always in action. A detailed analysis of 
his work, however, as compared to that of some of the other 
bricklayers showed that he actually laid only about 75 per 
cent of what the average bricklayer did. This was due to 
the fact that although he worked very fast, he went through 
many unnecessary motions. He always tapped the brick three 
or four times after it was laid in the mortar, so that the mor- 
tar oozed out and had to be cut off at the joint each time. It 
would have been enough to tap it once or twice, and then 
there would have been no necessity for cutting off the mortar 
so often. Moreover he handled his trowel most gracefully, but 
his flourishes, far from assisting him in laying bricks in the 
wall, actually used up considerable energy in useless motions. 

Maintaining Quality 

The quality factor should be given immediate considera- 
tion and its importance determined before any attempt is made 



l 3 8 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

toward increasing quantity. The relation of quality to quantity 
depends upon the operation. In the case of manufacturing 
ladies' high-grade, tailor-made garments which will sell for 
$150 a garment, the quality factor is obviously paramount; 
while in the case of unloading pig iron it is practically nil. 
During the preliminary study the analyst should ascertain the 
importance of the quality factor and from company officials 
the trade requirements in order to set a well-defined standard 
by which all the work is to be measured. 

There are two classes of workers, quality workers and 
quantity workers. The latter often slip poor work through, 
while the former occasionally take pains out of all proportion 
to the need. The analyst should bear in mind, however, that low 
output does not necessarily or even usually mean high quality. 
Both quantity and quality may be improved by setting a definite 
standard and, when the operation warrants it, instituting some 
form of check or inspection of the work of all the employees. 

Materials Worked upon 

As with quality, the importance of the material depends 
upon the individual operation. Almost every employee handles 
material carelessly. It is hard for him to realize how rapidly 
a small daily waste mounts into hundreds of thousands of dol- 
lars. Where the waste is great and the material expensive, a 
special study is advisable. This study should include analysis 
of all the sources of waste, the loss from each source and the 
means by which it could be corrected, and education of the 
employees in the consequences of throwing away material. In 
addition it is sometimes advisable to introduce special bonus 
payments for saving material. 

Studying Equipment 

The condition of the machines and equipment used in an 
operation should be carefully considered, especially in com- 



MAKING THE PRELIMINARY STUDY 



139 



mencing an analysis. Considerable time may be wasted in 
taking elaborate detail studies on machines and equipment 
which are in need of repair. In one textile mill it was found 
in the preliminary investigation that out of some fifty ma- 
chines working on an operation not one was in proper running 
shape. On practically every machine all the belts were loose 
and in some instances the nuts were gone entirely so that the 
bolts had to be wired on to keep them from falling out. The 
result was that when any new part was put in, it was not very 
long before it either broke or became much worn. Such a 
state of affairs is almost unbelievable; yet it is not the only 
example of such a condition found in factories. 

A preliminary study of an operation probably will reveal 
certain possibilities in regard to changes which may be made 
in the design or the method of operation of the machinery and 
equipment. This, however, may merely mean that the analyst 
makes a note of certain points, improvement in which might 
increase production. It does not mean that his suggestions 
are necessarily to be instituted or even to be tried out at the 
time. Each suggestion, however, should be carefully noted and 
entered on a separate suggestion sheet to be filed in a "sugges- 
tion book." Every time anything bearing on the suggestion is 
learned, it should be entered on the suggestion sheet. If this 
is not done and the sheets are not frequently referred to, there 
is danger that the suggestion book will become a graveyard of 
ideas. 

Methods of Operating Equipment 

The second purpose of the preliminary study is to gain an 
understanding of present methods of operating. This is done 
with reference to possible later improvements in mechanical 
methods, tentative layout of operations, and "group work." 

1. Mechanical Methods. A study of the methods and rou- 
tine already in use will probably disclose reasons why some of 



140 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

the changes noted in the study of the operation would be un- 
warranted. The test should always be whether the saving 
would be in proportion to the expense involved. In some cases 
it may be found that a suggestion which might prove prac- 
ticable later on would require more experience, more floor 
space, or more time than is available at the moment. Any 
mechanical improvement, even though it may seem exceedingly 
simple to make, means at best a certain amount of delay in 
getting parts made and a certain amount of experimentation 
before the innovation works practically all of which takes con- 
siderable time, to say nothing of money. Hence standards 
should sometimes be set on an operation at once, without wait- 
ing months before the change can be completed, so as to get 
immediate results in the way of increased production. Such 
immediate setting of standards, however, is only possible 
when the change does not materially affect the standard being 
set, or when the change is so fundamental that it cannot be 
brought about for some years and will then revolutionize the 
operation. It is not practicable to keep changing the standards 
because of repeated changes in method and equipment. Never- 
theless, the analyst should bear in mind that it is much wiser 
to utilize to its full extent the existing machinery and equip- 
ment, thereby making money which can be expended for the 
development of refinements, than it is to try to reach absolute 
perfection at once. 

An example of large saving at small expense is afforded 
by the wheeled truck, shown in Figure 21. A truck like this 
may be used both as a workplace and a truck, saving the load- 
ing and unloading of stock. In a manufacturing plant where 
a great deal of the work is seasonal the same idea is utilized 
in a slightly different fashion. Many of the workplaces are 
on wheels, so that they can be used singly during the season 
when small advertising booklets are being made, and in combin- 
ation when large billboard posters are going through the plant. 



MAKING THE PRELIMINARY STUDY 



141 



To make expensive recommendations is a common error. 
The novice is bursting with a commendable enthusiasm for 
his work. He is in a hurry to reform the entire plant. Un- 
fortunately, however, he brings to his task a good supply of 




Figure 21. Combination Wheeled Truck and Workplace 



ignorance as well as of enthusiasm, and unless he has con- 
siderable mechanical sense and considerably more common 
sense, he will make suggestions for improvements in machinery 
or methods that may save a little of the employee's time but 
that will not actually pay for themselves when all the factors 
are taken into consideration. 



142 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

The analyst who sees his task in its larger aspects must at 
the same time try to get the point of view of the man who 
is employing him. The manufacturer is aware that improve- 
ments can be made in his plant and is willing to pay to have 
these made, but he wants them attended to as quickly and 
cheaply as possible and is anxious to have the changes pay for 
themselves as the work progresses. 

2. Layout of Operation. What has just been said applies 
particularly to mechanical improvements. There often are, 
however, certain improvements in routine which may be made 
at practically no expense. For example, it is evident that each 
operation is related to the operation preceding it and also has 
a bearing on the operations that follow. Consequently a gen- 
eral survey of the department should be made with this fact in 
mind. A little observation may show that a change in the 
division of work will reduce the total time of completing the 
process — which means reduced costs. It is often practicable, 
for example, to reduce the number of times the stock is handled. 
In a certain textile plant the cloth after inspection was placed 
on tables, where each bolt was tied, or "tacked," as soon as 
it was placed there. When the table was full, the inspectors 
cleared it ofT by loading the bolts on trucks. By placing the 
material on trucks in the first instance instead of on the tables, 
the extra handling was eliminated and the number of girls 
engaged in "tacking" was reduced, because it was found to be 
easier to "tack" a number of bolts at once than one at a time. 

3. Group Work. An operation performed by several em- 
ployees working together as a team is called "group work," 
and during the preliminary study of a plant the analyst should 
consider the method there used of dividing the labor in this 
manner. 

There are two classes of group operations : one done by a 
head and a number of assistants, and the other by a number 
of persons of about equal caliber working together. 



MAKING THE PRELIMINARY STUDY 



143 



In the first class, the main part of the operation is done by 
one employee who is in charge of the work but who is assisted 
by other employees. This is true of the operation of laying 
cloth, shown in Figure 22, where the leader should have a 
certain knowledge of the tailoring trade and the peculiarities 
of cloth so that he may handle each kind properly. Provided 
he has such knowledge he may make large savings, by shifting 
the pattern or cloth so as to throw any imperfection into a 
collar or pocket, where if the part had to be replaced it would 
take the minimum of cloth to do it. One employee cannot do 
the work alone because the extreme widrii of the cloth makes it 
necessary to have an assistant to work on the opposite side of 
the table. The assistant, of course, has to learn how to handle 
the cloth, but he does not need a great deal of detail knowledge, 
and should, therefore, not be paid at so high a rate as the 
experienced employee who is responsible for the quality. 

In the second class, several employees work together, each 
one doing his part in proper sequence. A simple illustration 
is that of three men driving a large stake into the ground with 
sledge hammers. Each man takes his turn in swinging the 
sledge. Each must perform his work in proper sequence. If 
one of the men is slower than the other two it will be necessary 
for the other two to slow down the swing of the sledge in 
order that all three of them may work in unison. This is an 
example of the way in which the slowest employee sets the 
pace for the group. 

Standardizing Machines 

The third purpose in making a preliminary study is to set 
standards for machines. In many factories uniform standards 
have not been set, even for machines of the same type doing 
the same sort of work. As the business grows, new machines 
are constantly being built which have minor improvements of 
one sort or other. Unless the mechanical superintendent, how- 



144 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 




MAKING THE PRELIMINARY STUDY 145 

ever, has a vision of the work as a whole, the new machines 
built may not include all the good points of the old, nor the 
old be changed so as to have the good points of the new. In 
a certain textile factory someone once had an idea that the 
winding machines could be run faster without injury to the 
material, and accordingly had the pulleys on one of the ma- 
chines changed. The experiment, however, was never fol- 
lowed. The other ten machines of the same type were kept 
at the old speed, although everyone in the department knew 
that the machine on which the pulleys had been changed was 
doing more work and just as well as the slower machines. 

During the preliminary study the analyst should start a 
campaign for setting standards for the machines, and should 
see to bringing them to these standards. The machines should 
be calibrated and those doing the same work should run at 
one speed — the speed which is most satisfactory for the work. 
All improvements worth-while on any one of the machines 
should be introduced for all the machines of that type, chang- 
ing the necessary parts, making all machines of this same type 
alike, and putting all of them in line with what are determined 
to be the best standards. 

Improvements for the purpose of standardising machines 
should not be confused with suggested improvements intended 
to increase production. These suggestions were discussed 
earlier in the chapter when the effect of the machine factor 
on the operation was considered. It was pointed out there that 
these suggestions were not to.be instituted or even tried out 
during the preliminary study, but were to be noted in the sug- 
gestion book. 

Production and Earnings 

After job standardization is well under way, all persons 
interested — and these include employer and employees as well 
as the analyst and his assistants — will wish to know what is be- 



146 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

ing accomplished. Moveover, certain data are needed in the 
advanced stages of job standardization which, if not on hand 
at the time, will seriously hold back the work. The fourth 
purpose of making the preliminary study therefore is to size 
up the situation and to start the process of gathering necessary 
information. In all cases information is necessary on these two 
points — present production and present earnings of employees. 

One of the points of which the management will wish to 
be and should be informed is the increase in production brought 
about through job standardization. It is important that the 
head of the department be able to furnish this information, 
since it may have considerable effect on the officials in de- 
termining the company's future policy. 

In order to find what increases in production are made 
possible through the analysis, it is necessary to compare the 
amount produced after the analysis with that before it was 
begun. Although the employees have a general idea, and in 
some few cases a correct idea, of the amount they turn out 
from day to day, it is not advisable to trust to figures obtained 
from the employees. Definite facts are essential in getting the 
co-operation of the executives. The figures as shown by the 
company's records whenever they are available are to be used 
for all comparison between previous production and produc- 
tion after job standardization has been introduced. 

If these records are not available, then steps must be taken 
immediately to have some actual records kept of production, 
classified according to employees and orders and differentiating 
between different classes of goods manufactured. The analyst 
may specify the records and data he needs, but the data should, 
if possible, be accumulated through the regular channels and 
independently of the analyst — especially if he is a man from an 
outside company of consulting engineers. 

An official in a company realizes only too well that produc- 
tion varies from time to time and that records should be taken 



MAKING THE PRELIMINARY STUDY 



147 



over a long period in order to get a fair average. He is, there- 
fore, prone to question any comparisons which are not based 
on records covering a long enough period to give fair averages. 

Drawbacks of Special Records 

In a certain mill about a year ago the operation of sorting 
paper was studied. The operation consisted of inspecting 
paper for off-shades and imperfect sheets, but no adequate 
records had been kept of the production so that there was 
nothing on hand to show the average output per employee. 
Records were at once begun by the analyst before he com- 
menced detail studies. 

After the standards had been determined he estimated from 
these records that if the employees worked according to the 
standards set, the production would be increased 100 per cent. 
The net savings would then amount to between $6,000 and 
$7,000 a year, even if the volume of business remained the 
same. The possible savings, if the increase in business was 
in proportion to the increase in efficiency, would be $20,000 a 
year. 

As the general manager was in government service, the re- 
port was submitted to his assistant as a basis for extending the 
system into another department. Since the figures had not 
been compiled by his own cost department and the method of 
analyzing the situation was different from any previously used 
in the plant, he seemed doubtful and was unwilling to have the 
analysis work extended to another department. 

When the general manager returned, he ordered the work 
started in the second department, basing action largely on his 
confidence in the analyst. In this department, however, the 
cost department had adequate records both before and after 
the installation, and the analyst was able to show from these 
records an increase of 100 to 150 per cent. Thereupon the 
assistant to the general manager at once accepted the figures, 



148 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

with the statement that with such results the work should be 
extended immediately to every department in the mill. 

In the course of the preliminary study, the earnings of the 
employees should also be tabulated, with remarks as to varia- 
tions in the pay due to years of service, age, previous experi- 
ence, and so forth. This data should be kept in the analyst's 
special file for ready reference. Great care should be taken not 
to let this information become public or even allow it to be 
looked over by any unauthorized person. It should be used 
later in deciding adjustments to be made when the new routine 
is established. 

Sample Instructions for Preliminary Study 

Perhaps the best way of summarizing what should be ac- 
complished by means of the preliminary study is to print as a 
sample the instruction card made out by an engineer some 
months ago for an assistant about to undertake the preliminary 
study in one of the departments of a paper-mill. 1 

These instructions were given on cards as the headings 
indicate. The points are listed numerically. The work, how- 
ever, did not have to be done in numerical sequence. The first 
instruction card is a survey of existing conditions at the com- 
mencement of the study, involving the ascertainment of what 
had been accomplished under these conditions and the gather- 
ing of all information necessary to an understanding of the 
operation. The second card describes the general line of at- 
tack and the setting of standards for machines and methods. 
The assistant should do first that which seems easiest. A clerk, 
for example, would probably do the first point first, viz., list- 
ing employees by name and number, whereas an outsider 
might wait before getting this data until the names meant 
something to him. 



1 Instructions made out by H. M. Davis of the Thompson and Lichtner Company. 



MAKING THE PRELIMINARY STUDY 149 

Instruction Card 

No. 1 

Subject : Gummed Slitting Job Analysis 

1. Labor Statistics 

Get names and weekly earnings of employees, kind of operations 
they can do (in the order of their expertness), length of serv- 
ice and remarks on their capabilities, etc. 

Get a report on labor turnover. 

Report also on number and causes of accidents. (This may be 
helpful in deciding what changes ought to be made and what 
changes cannot be made.) 

2. Standards of Quality 

Report on nature of work performed. 
Extent of inspection done. 
Quality of incoming paper. 

Defective work that might be caused by operators or machines. 
Required quality for outgoing work. 
Volume and nature of seconds and how picked out. 
Waste ; amount, reason, and method of handling. Is the machine 
ever stopped to take out waste? 

3. Material Worked upon 

Product handled. (Get samples.) 

4. Machines and Equipment 

Report the equipment now on hand. 
Machines. 
Type. 

Speeds, constant or variable, and how much? Have machines 
ever been changed and if not, the reason why? Talk with 
foreman and compare different machines. 
Method of operating. 

List the operations that characterize each machine. 

Troubles peculiar to each machine, or combination of machines, 

and product. 
Small tools. 
Trucks. 
Benches. 
Labels, roll tags and other identification marks. 



150 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

5. Present Methods of Operating 

Work by slitters. 

List detail operations on each machine. 

Note difference due to operator and those due to machine. 

Talk to employees in order to get acquainted and to find out 
troubles from employees' point of view. 

Auxiliary members of department. 

Note in some detail what is done. 
Mechanical repairs on belts. 

How is this work handled? 
Make a floor plan of the department (y$ inch equals 1 foot), 

showing all machines, benches, storage spaces, unslit rolls, 

slit but not bundled, bundled but not packed, packed, waste. 

6. Present Methods of Planning and Controlling 

Division into customers' work orders and mill orders. 

How is work moved up to the machine? 

How is work accounted for at the machine? 

How is work moved away from the machine and accounted for? 

How is work placed in storehouse as semi-manufactured, finished 

stock, seconds, make and hold for customers, etc. ? 
How are cases ordered and received? How are dimensions 

fixed? 
How is waste accounted for? 

Talk with head of Planning Department, foreman, clerks. 

Get samples of all tickets and forms and fill in enough data to 
show the use. 

7. Present Records 

Plot curve for each machine showing output for last six months. 

Report similar data for bundlers and packers. 
Departmental down time. 

Examine reason for down time shown on four-weekly reports 
and report the amount for each machine for six months' time 
for various reasons reported. 
Volume of business handled. 

Can the company sell enough business to utilize any increase 

in capacity we give them? 
What has been the volume of business in the past? 
Report. 

Volumes of various grades handled, troubles peculiar to 
each. What lines should we study first? 



MAKING THE PRELIMINARY STUDY 151 

Output of the gummers, total for the department and down 
time by per cent. 
8. Suggestions from Members of Department 

Encourage suggestions by superintendent, foreman, operators, 

and get all ideas possible. 
Report in typewriting, with samples, tables of data, floor plans, 

forms, etc. The work should be done by June 1, 1920. 
With these reports as a basis, we should be able to decide the 
order for studying operations (slitting, bundling, packing, 
layout) of slitting machine and products. If we get an im- 
mediate increase on the slitters, will the gummers take it up 
promptly, and can the bundlers and packers get it out of the 
way fast enough to avoid a jam? 

Instruction Card 
No. 2 

Subject : Gummed Slitting Job Analysis 

General Line of Attack 

A preliminary survey of the gummed slitting work indicates that 
the problem is chiefly one of mechanical changes on the machines 
and in the layout of the department, including methods and 
equipment used in getting the rolls onto the machine and in 
getting the coils from the machines into the packing cases. With 
so many variables in type of machine and also in product, the 
work will have to be carefully handled to avoid running into 
two years time, studying and revising mechanical changes and in 
getting them made. 

The job ought to be only a question of months. 

In general, we should handle all machines as a unit until they are 
all in shape to start final time studies for bonus. Make one job 
of revising the method of getting the feed rolls onto all ma- 
chines, and while waiting for the equipment to be installed work 
out improved methods of changing finished coils for all machines, 
and while this work is being done by the mechanical department 
take up another job. 
Preliminary Time Studies 

Make a short-time study, % hour to 1 hour on each machine, to 
get a close line on the down time and the different methods in 



152 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

use. Do the same thing for the workers bundling, packing, or 
otherwise handling coils. A shorter study (j/2 hour) should be 
enough here. 

List the operations and symbols you intend to time and refer to 
the analyst before starting. Work up these studies. 
Changing Feed Rolls 

Find a method of changing feed rolls that cuts the machine down 
time for the operation to a minimum. 

Draw on plotting paper a cross-section of the back of each machine 
(where there is any difference) showing the floor level, bearings 
for feed rolls, shafts, parts connected to the bearings (uprights, 
etc.). Show also a back view with any necessary detail that 
affects the way rolls should be put in, such as friction, slitting 
knives, etc. 

The general aim should be to have a feed roll ready ahead of the 
machine with an extra shaft in place ready to drop into the ma- 
chine in the right position to give the necessary trim on each 
side of the roll. 

The sketches you can make on the job direct from measurements 
should be plenty good enough for the purpose. 
Miscellaneous 

Arrange with the gumming planning department to let you know 
when knives are to be changed and get a study on the methods 
and time of doing the work. If we need an extra shaft and extra 
knives for this work we must get them ordered. 

Arrange to have the department clerks make an inventory of the 
mechanical equipment in the department and report if it is up to 
date, properly marked, and stored. Decide if we should not 
design racks and bins properly labeled, with benches all arranged 
as one compact workplace where all machines can be taken care 
of. 



CHAPTER XI 

TAKING THE TIMES 

Systematized Analysis 

Since taking detail time studies of an operation is inevi- 
tably a long process, involving much careful work, the analyst 
should make every moment pay and make every study of value. 
The detailed work is what brings lasting results, but it is 
possible to save time by substituting for many hasty, poorly 
considered studies a relatively small number taken according 
to the best method. A thorough preliminary survey, as de- 
scribed in the previous chapter, is one way to shorten the stage 
of taking the times. This stage can also be shortened by using 
the technique of job standardization. 

Employee and Machine 

As always, the human element is the first to consider. 
This is necessary in every operation, including even one which 
is practically automatic, for whatever the machine, some 
human being has to spend a certain amount of time tending 
it. The range of human activity varies greatly with various 
operations, but in every case the human factor must have first 
consideration. 

The choice of the employees to be studied will have an 
effect on the value of the studies. From one point of view, 
it is possible to look on the study as the product of the joint 
efforts of the observer and the worker. It is important, there- 
fore, that the right employee be selected, and just as important 
that he understand the purpose of the studies. There is only 
one standard for a machine, and it is comparatively easy to 

i53 



I 5 4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

decide whether it is up to that standard or not; but there are 
all kinds of standards to which a man may measure up. The 
analyst must decide which of these standards is necessary to 
the operation in question — whether, for instance, it is a 
standard of quality or quantity — and to what extent the em- 
ployees reach it. 

It is advisable first to talk over the employees with the 
foreman of the department. He usually has a clear idea of 
their capabilities. Some of them, at least, he has instructed 
in the operation. He knows who have acquired their exper- 
ience at other plants, and who have simply picked up the 
method of doing the work as best they could. From his 
knowledge of what the various employees turn out from week 
to week and from watching them at work he will have formed 
his opinion as to their qualifications. A talk with him in regard 
to these points, as well -as in regard to the temperament of the 
employees, their weaknesses, and their receptiveness to new 
ideas, will help the analyst to decide on the method of approach- 
ing the employee who is first to be studied. 

Studying the Skilled Employee 

Although due consideration must be given to the relative 
importance of quality and quantity on the operation, one thing 
may be said definitely— the studies should be made on an 
employee who is skilled. This is advisable for the following 
reasons : 

1. His motions are more uniform. 

2. He works more steadily. 

3. He is apt to use the best methods and to adapt himself 

more easily to new ones. 

4. The influence of the personal equation is less pro- 

nounced. 

5. The results manifest his fluctuations and are more 

dependable. 



TAKING THE TIMES 155 

The erratic work of the unskilled employee throws all 
manner of unnecessary variables into the detail unit times. 
It will be necessary to determine whether the variation in the 
time taken by an element is due simply to the fact that the 
employee is unskilled, or is due in part to the material he is 
working upon or the tools he is using. Under these conditions 
it will require more studies and a greater degree of skill on 
the part of the analyst to determine the correct times accurately. 

In group work, since the speed is limited by the speed of 
its slowest members, the personnel of the group must be con- 
sidered to see whether it is composed of skilled employees, and 
if not, whether such a group can be brought together. 

Gaining Employees' Good-Will 

.In Chapter VIII the analyst was advised not to consider 
the employees or "operators" in his campaign for enlisting co- 
operation, but to direct his attention chiefly to gaining the 
good-will and assistance of the executives, the superintendent, 
and the foreman. When, however, his work touches the em- 
ployees immediately, he should endeavor to win their personal 
co-operation. This should be done by talking to them and 
explaining as far as practicable what he is trying to do. Dur- 
ing this stage of taking the times the analyst will, before and 
after the studies, make the most of the opportunity of getting 
acquainted with the employees. 

Operation and Element Defined 

The term "operation" is used to describe any course or 
series of acts performed either by one workman or by a group 
of workmen as a unit, which either adds one step to the com- 
plete process or constitutes in itself a complete process; 
while the term "element" refers to any division or subdivision 
of an operation which corresponds to an individual motion, 
and which has definite points of starting and stopping. The 



I 5 6 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

principle of time study and job analysis is the discovery of the 
time required not only by an operation as a whole but by each 
part of the operation. Accordingly, the first act of the analyst, 
upon commencing the time study, is to break the operation 
into its elements. 

Analyzing the Operation 

The advantage of analyzing an operation into elements is 
that each one of these can be considered separately, with a 
view to its effect upon the whole, the factors having an effect 
on it, and its possible improvement. Moreover the elements 
can be recombined to apply to different conditions, so that it 
is not necessary to be continually taking new studies when- 
ever requirements are slightly modified. 

An operation must be divided into elements which are small 
enough so that each one will not include too many motions. 
If it is not studied in enough detail, the unit times may show 
great variations which cannot be explained. When this occurs, 
it means taking more studies that have to be worked up, and in 
all probability more time will be lost than if the operation had 
been broken into smaller elements at the start. The disadvan- 
tage of breaking the operation into more elements than neces- 
sary is that it requires a great deal of skill to observe the times 
taken by a series of elements, each occupying, say, less than 
.02 minute, and that it requires much more study of these ex- 
tremely small elements to determine the amount of time to be 
allowed for each. Although it is not absolutely necessary to 
separate several of these very small consecutive elements, as 
a general rule the results will be more accurate where this is 
done — it is better to break an operation up into too many ele- 
ments rather than too few. Several elements can be readily 
combined, while an element which is made up of several con- 
secutive movements cannot be further subdivided without tak- 
ing more studies. 



TAKING THE TIMES 157 

Sample Analysis 

Take, for example, the operation of laying cloth. The 
men laying cloth walk the full length of a bench, pulling the 
cloth a distance of 8, 10, 12, or more feet, depending upon the 
length specified in their instructions. They can straighten and 
even the cloth on their return to the head of the table where 
the bolt is on the rack, so that any wrinkles or folds will be 
removed before they cut the cloth to the desired length. The 
elements which should be taken for this part of the operation 
are : 



Pull cloth (specify length) feet. 

Straighten first section. 

Straighten and even (specify length) feet. 

Walk (specify length) feet. 

Obtain shears. 

Cut. 



If the elements "straighten and even" were combined with 
"walking" as it might be by some analyst, great fluctuations 
would appear which would be hard to account for. If "obtain- 
ing shears" and "cutting" were combined, it might be hard to 
set the standard time which either one would take, since delays 
— such as that of looking for the shears — might occur during 
either one of the elements. By keeping them distinct the 
analyst avoids confusion. In the element "straighten and 
even," moreover, the observer notes the number of straighten- 
ings which the employee actually makes, so as to determine for 
each kind of cloth the number required. Some cloths may re- 
quire only two straightenings for a 12-foot length, while others 
may require two or three times as many straightenings. Again 
some cloths have a smooth finish and require but a short time 
to make each straightening while others have a rough surface 
and require much more time in which to make each straighten- 
ing. 



158 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Symbolizing Operations 

The use of symbols is general in scientific methods of man- 
agement. It is desirable that standard symbols be adopted 
and used by everyone as standing for the same thing. A chart 
of symbols used to describe the various products of a bleach- 
ery is shown in Figure 23, showing the general principles of 
symbolization. 

The observer may analyze the operation into its elements 
before starting the stop-watch, or, if the unit times are not 
short, during the taking of the readings. As each new element 
is performed, he should make a note on the sheet, stating the 
action it involves — as, in the operation of laying cloth, 
straighten and even, obtain shears, or cut. He will then give 
the element a letter or symbol so that when it occurs again there 
will be no further necessity of rewriting the entire phrase. 
Thus in laying cloth "e" might stand for "straighten and even" 
and "c" for "cut." 

There are two methods employed for symbolizing the 
elements. One is to assign the first letter of the alphabet (a) 
to the first element, the second letter (b) to the second element, 
and so on. The other method carries out the mnemonic idea, 
selecting as the symbol the first letter of the main word or its 
main vowel, or even, when these letters have both been em- 
ployed, the first letter of a word synonymous with the word 
in question. Thus (p) might be used for "pull cloth," (s) 
for "straighten first section," and (e) for "straighten and 
even." Although the first method of using the letters of the 
alphabet in regular rotation is satisfactory on operations where 
the elements are always performed in the same sequence, and 
on operations where so many studies are taken that there 
is no trouble in remembering the symbol chosen, it is generally 
better to employ mnemonic symbols. The main advantage is 
that the mind readily associates the words with the first letter 
or main word. Moreover, since the observer will often use 



"TURKISH 
TOWELS 


FlanlCrash 
inels es 


IHuck 
[TjnveL 


FINE GOODS 


GENERAL CLASSIFICATION 








1 


3 








S 


3 




I 


1 












~ 


1 


! 


» 


s 


* 


I 


o 


1 


1 


= 


NAME 

OF 
GOODS 



52 -1 

Tl 3> 

r~ 

r! ° 
O 






H 

s 


1 


J 




- 




H 


% 




a 

-t 


O 












s 


5 


™ 


z 


£ 


P 


?! 


:r> 


5 


o 


s 


BACKFILLED 


FIRST AND 

SECOND LETTERS 

OF SYMBOL 




-1 


7^ 






I 












£ 


5 


3 


5 


s 


? 


..' 


c 


3 


o 


s 


PURE 






































> 












> 




> 


> 


> 


> 


Singed. Bleached, Starchedand Calendered 


































































Singed, Bleached, Starched, Calendered and Framed 






































o 


o 


o 


o 






o 




o 


o 





[» 


Singed.Bleached, Starched, Framed and Calendered 


















c.i 


O 


























u 


u 












1 > 


Bleached, Starchedand Calendered 














































m 






m 








en 


Bleached, Starched, Calendered and Framed 




















ti 


























-n 


Tl 












-n 


Bleached, Starched, Framed and Calendered 


.— 




























































O 




rn-H 




















X 
































I 








I 


Bleached. Starched and Framed 






































e_ 


c- 


t. 








<- 










L 


Sinned. Bleached. Starched and Framed 


55° 


(Tl[-n 


























































■* 






C/D - ! 














r~ 














































r" 


Bleached, Run Through Flannel Combination and Inspected 


3j;M 
























£ 


si 


































<: 


Bleached, Starched, Calendered jndManqled and Beetled 




























































z 




pfe 




























































TJ 






























































ro 




m—t 




zc/3 

O 

r— 

O 
3D 

rr 

C 30 
ID 

:o 

en 
■< 
S 
aa 

O 




































































-J 


H 


H 


















































H 


Bleached. Run ThrouahBluina Manqle & to Turkish Drvina Room 





























































































































< 






























































£ 






























































v 






























































-* 






























































N 










































*• 


> 


v> 


> 




> 


> 


> 




V 


> 


12" Double Back 


-no 












CD 


ID 




ro 


CD 




ro 


03 


ID 


03 


CD 


CD 


12" Manufacturers' Sinqle Back 












O 


o 


o 


o 


o 






O 


O 


o 




O 


9" Fold 




















o 










u 




O 


6" Regular 




















m 










m 




in 


6" Enrjlish 




































Barnslev Fold 


































LI 


Cuttle Fold 




























X 






.1. 


Dress Fold 












■■- 


e- 


c_ 


<L- 






<- 










*-\ 


Silk Fold (Same as Dress Fold) 




















>■ 


?; 








7:. 




7* 


Longcloth Fold 


m™ 




































Doubled and Book 


































< 


Doubled and Lapped on Wood or Cardboard 






















Z 










z 


Z 


Z 


Doubled and Rolled on Plate 


0= 


































1) 


Single and Lapped on Blade (Wood or Cardboard) 


os- 




















31 










ji 




I) 


Crea No. 1 Fold 






















C" 










co 




.D 


Crea No. 2 Fold (Skirt Fold) 




















H 










H 




H 


Rolled on Spindle , ,. 




















c 










c 




c 


Rolled on Tube and on 3-5 Wood Shells 


































< 




































£ 




































■ 




































-< 




































'j 




























T7 


































-0 


Huck Fold (Papered) 


©- 






2 


5 


Huck Fold 






O 







Cut and Tied in Bundles of Five Dozen 




T 




X 


Cut, Hemmed and Tied in Bundles of One Dozen 

Cut. Hemmed, Tied and Papered (Two Dozen in a Packaqe) 




^ 










Cut, Hemstiched and Tied in Bundl 
Cut. Hemstitched. Tied and Papere 


?s of One Dozen 




H 




A (Three Doz. in a Package) 








































-n 


n 








































~ r - 


Bamsley Fold 


IS 

5«S 




H 


H 


Rolled on Spindle 
















































































































■■■ 


Rolled on Tube and on 3-5 Wood Shells 








r~ 00 
C/3^ 


































X 


















































X 


Rolled on Spindle, Tied and Papered 


ILH- 
KY 


-In 

cro 
en— 
m° 

OS 

03 




























Cut andJQed in Bundles of One Do 
Cut, Tied ami Papered (One Dozen 
Cut, (Fringed) Tied in Bundles of 
Cut, (Fringed), Tied and Papered ( 


en 











n 




n a Package) 








-n 




3ne Dozen 








o 




1 Doz. in a Packaqe) 








I 




Cut, H.ejBme.d and Tied in. Bundles ; of One_D.ozeji _, ._ 

Cut. Hemmed. Tied and Papered (One Dozen in a Package) 

Cut, Hemstiched and Tied in Bundles of One Dozen 

Cut. Hemstftched/Tied and Papered (1 Doz. in a Package) 








c_ 










CO 










- 




























1 


Cut and Tied in Bundles of Five Do 


zen 


55 






n 






Cut, Tied and P 
Cut. Hemmed a 


jiered (Five Uozer 


in a Packaqe) 






T 






id Tied in Bundles ot Five Dozen 

led and Papered (1 ive Dozen 111 a Package) 






^ 






Cut, Hemmed, 

















Figure 23, Chart of Symbols Used to Designate Various Products of a Bleachery 

159 



j6o time study and job analysis 

the same symbols for common elements irrespective of the 
operation in which they occur, as w for walk, or s for stop- 
ping machine, it facilitates a comparison between the times 
taken by the same element under different conditions. 

Results of Imperfect Analysis 

Analyzing an operation seems to the uninitiated to be very 
easy. This is true if the operation is broken up into its major 
elements only, but as a general rule it is necessary to break it 
up into smaller elements in order to study it in enough detail. 
In some cases, for example, the element of picking up the 
material should be separated from the element of placing it 
in position. The object of this is to determine the variation 
in time of each of these elements for varying conditions of 
work, weight of material, or whatever the variable happens 
to be. 

The results of the failure to analyze the operation by re- 
cording all variables in sufficient detail were well illustrated 
in a case where a so-called experienced man made a detailed 
study of the operation of "stitching pads on calendars." The 
difference between a hasty, inaccurate study, in which all 
variables were not taken into account and a scientifically exact 
study is clearly brought out by citing this example in detail. 

The job of wire-stitching date-pads on the backs of calen- 
dars is a relatively simple one. The analyst, Mr. X, took 
fourteen studies — one study each on half of the total number 
of machines in the room, except on No. 2 machine, on which 
he took five studies. Each study occupied from two to ten 
minutes. 

From the results of the fourteen studies, taking in all less 
than two and a half hours, he drew up a curve, reproduced 
in Figure 24, which he maintained covered the standard for 
the job. Then he added an extra 35 per cent for delays. Just 
how or why he settled upon this figure of 35 per cent he did 



TAKING THE TIMES 



161 



not state; evidently he assumed the figure arbitrarily. He 
made the error, however, of failing to record all the variables 



30 
28 
20 
24 
22 
20 
18 
16 
14 
12 
10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0— 100 200 300 400 500 601) 700 800 900 1000 

Figure 24. Incorrect Time Curve for Wire-Stitching Calendar Backs 

affecting the task. It was later found from careful study that 
the time required for wire-stitching calendars was dependent 
upon five variables : 

1. The stiffness of the calendar back. The calendars 

could be grouped into two classes; either stiff- or 
limber-back. 

2. The size of the back. The size of the back was any- 

where from 100 square inches to 600 square inches, 
with the ratio between the width and the length any- 
where from 1 to 1, up to 1 to 2/2. This ratio 
between width and length was a factor only when 
the area was over 440 square inches. 















Wir 


eSti 


tching C 


alen 


iars 


































































































T3 

0) 































































^ 


f 






































*,« 


w 






































jy 




















3 
















<3 


$y 






















p 












,,« 


■0/ 


























a 

0> 










■* 


^ 




























H 
11 

1- 














































































































































































W = 


Squ 


ire 1 


nche 


s 








idd 355S fo 


r Delays 



162 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



3. The size of the pad, which ranged anywhere from 10 

square inches to 160 square inches. 

4. The location of the pad. If the pad was located any- 

where except at the very bottom of the calendar, a 
lifting gage on the stitcher had to be used. 

5. The number of wire stitches, which varied from 2 to 

15. 
Of these five variables, Mr. X considered only one, the 
size of the calendar, and even in this one he failed to take into 



0.12 
0.11 
q.10 

0.09 

0.08 

0.07 

0.06 

0.05 

0.04 

0.03 

0.02 

0.01 

0.00 

20 60 100 140 180 220 260 300 340 380 420 460 500 540 580 620 

Figure 25. Correct Time Curve for Stitching Limber-Backed Calendars 

consideration the ratio of the width to the length of the calen- 
dar. Of course the rates thus reached were not satisfactory, 
and the job had to be restudied. Figures 25, 26, and 27, show 
the correct time curves for wire-stitching calendar pads. 





Wire Stitching Calendars Having Limber Backs 










1:2 y 2 




Value 
Value 


of "c' 
of "d' 


(plact 
' (placf 


calen 
' newc 


iar to 
alenda 


side a 
r back 


fter st 
on ma 


tching 
hine) 


plus 






































































1:2 




























/, 




3 
C 




























































CD 

s 




































































































































































A 


rea o: 


caler 


dar b 


ick in 


inch* 


s 








. 



TAKING THE TIMES 



163 



The following examples show the difference in time 
between results arrived at by correct methods and those incor- 



0.08 
0.07 
0.06 
0.05 
0.04 
0.03 
0.02 
0.01 
0.00 





Wire Stitching Calendars Having Stiflj Backs 
















Value 
Value 


of "c 
of c 


(pla 


ce ca] 
ce ne^ 


endar 
vcale 


tol s 

adar I 


deaft 
ack 


er sti 

imac 


ching 
line) 


) plus 
















































01 

3 
C 


































a 


































1 
















































































































\rea 


of ca 


enda 


r bac 


k in i 


nche 


1 













20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 

Figure 26. Correct Time Curve for Stitching Stiff-Backed Calendars 

rectly reached. On an order for wire-stitching 4,000 flexible- 
backed calendars, 12 inches X 20 inches, having a pad 12 



0.035 
0.030 
0.025 
0.020 
0.015 
0.010 
0.005 

°' 000 O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 

Figure 27. Correct Time Curve for Wire-Stitching Calendars 

inches X 5 inches, to be placed at the bottom, each calendar 
requiring three wire-stitches, the correct time allowance for 
this stitching was 6 hours, 51 minutes, whereas X had allowed 
8 hours, 4 minutes, or 21.6 per cent too much time. 









Wire Stitching Calendars 


















Val 
Wh 


tie of 
en usi 


'a" (1 
ng hir 


Dlace 1 
gedg 


>ad on 
jage i 


calen 

iiow 1 


dar bs 
.9 mil 


ck) 

1. extr 


iper 


.00 cal 


;ndar 


1 












+■» 

3 


































ft 


































a 

s 


































H 
















































































Arc 


a of 


Padi 


1 Inc 


lies 















^4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

For the stitching of 4,000 stiff-backed calendars of the 
same size and characteristics as in the first instance, the cor- 
rect allowance was found to be 8 hours, 12 minutes, whereas 
X's allowance was 8 hours, 44 minutes, or 6.1 per cent too 
much time. 

If the order consisted of stitching 4,000 flexible-backed 
calendars, having a pad, 15 inches X 5 inches, to be placed 
at the bottom, each calendar requiring 3 wire-stitches, the 
correct allowance was 11 hours, 11 minutes, whereas X had 
allowed 15 hours, 50 minutes, or 29.4 per cent more time than 
necessary. 

Position of Observer with Relation to Employee 

The position of the analyst while observing the operation 
and reading the stop-watch should be determined with care. 
In order to obtain a dependable study, the observer should 
take it from a position in which he can see exactly what the 
employee is doing, as well as what the machine is doing. The 
tendency of the beginner is to get directly in front of the em- 
ployee, because he has to concentrate so hard on getting the 
correct time for each element that he fancies if he were any- 
where except almost on top of the employee, he would not be 
able to see the exact moment at which each element is com- 
pleted. By so doing, however, he distracts the employee, who 
is working under a strain, which does not subside quickly 
because he is always conscious of being watched. Sometimes 
the employee is further handicapped by the observer's taking 
a position which shuts off the light or by his being in the way 
of materials being moved by the employee. 

The proper position, as a rule, is to stand at least 5 feet 
to the rear and to the right or left of the employee. This 
allows the observer to see everything that is going on, but does 
not confuse the employee, who will gradually become en- 
grossed in his job and work naturally. 



TAKING THE TIMES 165 

Figure 28 on page 167 shows the observer standing in the 
correct position to the rear of the employee. Figure 29 on page 
169 shows incorrect position. 

Instead of questioning the employee during the course of 
the study as to why he does or does not do a certain thing, the 
observer should wait until the study is completed. The em- 
ployee will be able to give all the information just as well at the 
end of the study as during it, and the observer will have the 
advantage of a record that is not indefinite because of abnormal 
conditions which he himself caused. 

Handling Stop-Watch 

The method of handling the stop-watch has considerable 
bearing on the success of the analyst in getting accurate data 
in a short time. The readings of the stop-watch supply the 
time measure of the operation and the information on which 
final time standards are to be based. The method, therefore, 
should give the times of the elements separately so that they 
may be later considered as distinct, may provide a record of the 
exact times taken by them, and yet afford a record of the place 
of the elements in the operation as a whole. 

The methods used are : 

1. Continuous method. 

2. Over-all method 

3. Repetitive method 

4. Accumulative method 

5. Cycle method 

1. Continuous Method. The continuous method gives the 
most satisfactory results in most cases and on most operations. 
According to this method, the elements are recorded in sequence 
without stopping the watch. The observer keeps the watch 
going continuously during the period of the study, making a 
mental note of the time as shown on the watch at the instant 



1 66 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

each element is completed and then recording that time on the 
sheet opposite the appropriate symbol. He should do all this 
with sufficient speed and concentration to be free to note and 
write the time of the completion of the next element. As the 
reading of the watch is practically instantaneous there is no 
necessity for stopping the hand. 

The stop-watch escapement allows the watch hand to make 
3 forward moves each .01 minute. Although if the hand 
were stopped, it would be possible to read to .003 minute, a 
reading to .01 minute is accurate enough for the usual ob- 
servation. A variation of .01 minute in an element taking as 
much as 1 minute is only 1 per cent — a negligible percentage 
of variation. Moreover it has been found that the law of 
averages applies on this work, and that an observer will in 
about 50 per cent of the cases read ahead to the next .01 min- 
ute and in the other 50 per cent will read back to the next 
.01 minute, which neutralizes the variation of readings and 
gives the correct total time for an operation. 

The continuous method meets all of the requirements cited 
above, giving not only the exact time for each element as a 
distinct entity, but also the times of all the elements in the 
order of their performance. Further advantages of the con- 
tinuous method are that it charges up every minute of the 
time for the duration of the study either to some necessary 
element, which may be called a "productive" element, or to 
an unnecessary one, which may be called a "non-productive" 
element; it also eliminates any danger of omitting delays. 

2. Over-All Method. Many novices attempt to use in place 
of the continuous, what may be called the "over-all" method. 
They take the total time for a combination of several elements 
or even for an entire operation, starting the watch at the be- 
ginning of the group or operation, and making no record until 
it is finished. This method reduces to a minimum the figuring 
required but is of little value except for the purpose of check- 



TAKING THE TIMES 



167 




i68 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



ing or supplementing conclusions drawn from detail or ele- 
mentary time study. It should never be used, in place of detail 
time study, because it neither allows for improvements nor 
shows delays, and for that reason is not applicable to the set- 
ting of accurate standards. It is, indeed, no great improvement 
over the foreman's guess. 

3. Repetitive Method. Another method of taking times 
used by novices is that known as the repetitive method. Ac- 
cording to this, the observer starts the watch at the beginning 
of an element, stops the watch when the element is completed, 
and records the duration of the element. The watch is then 
thrown back to zero. When the element appears again in the 
cycle, the observer starts the watch which is at zero, stops it 
when the element is completed, and once more records the 
time taken. In this fashion he may record several elements in 
one study, provided they do not occur consecutively. 

This method, like the over-all method, is easy for the ob- 
server and does not require much figuring. The conclusions 
drawn from it, however, are unsatisfactory, because one ele- 
ment should not be abstracted and timed apart by itself. The 
time taken to perform one element is more or less related to 
the time taken for the preceding element, since the employee 
usually swings from one motion to another without the slight- 
est hitch or stop. The repetitive method disregards this rela- 
tion, nor does it allow for delays. Moreover it is wasteful of 
time, since the observer during one study can record the times 
of but a portion of the elements and is obliged to take other 
studies to find the unit times of the rest. 

The repetitive method should only be used when the analyst 
is making a number of detailed observations of one motion of 
an operation with a view to its improvement. 

4. Accumulative Method. There are two other methods 
for taking times which are adapted to special cases — the re- 



TAKING THE TIMES 



169 




3 



P* 



3 



17 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

cording of elements which are "very fast," occupying between 
.003 and .02 minutes. These are the accumulative and the 
cycle methods. According to the accumulative method, the 
observer uses two or more stop-watches, the number depending 
upon his ability and the length of unit times, and keeps each 
watch for a separate element. Assuming that the symbols of 
the elements are, a, b, c, d, e, f , the first watch is started at the 
end of element f and stopped at the end of element a. 
Simultaneously with stopping the first watch the second watch 
is started at the end of element a and stopped at the end of 
element b. Both readings are then entered on the time-study 
sheet, and both watches are thrown back to zero ready for 
repeating this routine, which process is repeated at least 20 
times. Since the escapement of the watch allows the hand to 
make 3 forward moves each .01 of a minute, by stopping the 
hand the reading of the element may be recorded to .003 of a 
minute. The sum of the readings of the individual elements 
may be checked by taking an over-all time study of the com- 
plete cycle. 

5. Cycle Method. A cycle consists of a given number of 
elements. For example, there may be 4 elements involved in 
an operation — a-b-c-d — and these 4 elements taken together 
represent a cycle. The cycle method for taking the unit times 
of these elements consists of taking the times of the sum of 
all the elements less 1 element. The following equations repre- 
sent the method. 

An example to illustrate the method of computation is 
given below : 

Equations 

(1) a + b + c = 0.06 

(2) b + c -f- d = 0.05 

(3) a+ c + d = 0.07 

(4) a + b + d = 0.06 

(5) 3 a + 3b + 3c + 3d = 0.24 



TAKING THE TIMES 171 

Dividing equation (5) by 3 gives equation (6) : 

(6) a+b+c+d= 0.08 

Subtracting equation (1) from equation (6) gives the time 
value for element d : 

(1) a+ b + c = 0.06 

d = 0.02 

Similarly the time values for elements a, b, and c can be 
determined. 

Carl G. Barth discovered the fact that the number of 
elements of a cycle which may be observed together is subject 
to a mathematical law. This law is that the number of 
elements in any set must contain no factors, that is, the number 
of elements in any set must be divisible by no numbers which 
are contained in the total number of elements. The following 
table 1 was devised to show how many elements may be ob- 
served together in various cases. 



No. of 




No. of elements 


No. 


observed 1 


:ogether that 


elements 




that may 


be 


lead 


to a minimum of labor 


in the cycle 




observed together 


or is otherwise preferable 


3 


2 












2 


4 


3 












3 


5 


2, 


3, or 4 






3 


or 


4 


6 


5 












5 


7 


2, 


3, 4, 5- or 6 






4 


or 


6 


8 


3, 


5- or 7 






5 


or 


7 


9 


2, 


4. 5,7, or 8 






5 


or 


8 


10 


3, 


7, org 






7 


or 


9 


11 


2, 


3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 


9, or 10 




5 


or 


10 


12 


5, 


7, or 11 






7 


or 


11 



Thus if a series of 5 elements be taken and observations 
made on 3 consecutive elements of these at a time, the follow- 
ing equations would be obtained : 



1 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management, 191 2. 



I72 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



(l) 


a+ b + c 


= A 


(2) 


b+ c+ d 


= B 


GO 


c -f- d + e 


= C 


(4) 


a + d+ e 


= D 


(5) 


a+ b + e 


= E 



(6) 3 a+3b+3C+3d+3e = A+B+C+D+E=S 
or 

(7) a+ b+ c+ d+ e = 1/3 S 
Adding a to both sides of equation (7) gives: 

(8) a+b+c+d+e+a=i/3S+a 

Equation (8) may be written: 

(9) (a+b+c)+ (d+e+a)= 1/3 S + a 

Substituting in equation (9) the value A and the value D 
for their respective equivalents as shown in equations ( 1 ) and 
(4), we have : 

(10) A + D = 1/3 S + a 
or 

(11) a= A+D- 1/3S 

Similarly equations for determining the time for elements 
b, c, d, and e are obtained : 2 

b = B + E - 1/3 S 
c = C ■+. A - 1/3 S 

d = D + B - 1/3 S 

e = E + C - 1/3 S 

Machines for Time Study 

To concentrate on the performance of each element and at 
the same time to read the stop-watch and record the read- 
ings on the note sheet is difficult. Some study has accordingly 



2 F. W. Taylor, Shop Management. 191 2. 



TAKING THE TIMES 



1/3 



been given to the development of a mechanical device for re- 
cording the detail unit times of the elements. Experiment has 
proceeded along 2 lines : 

1. Under one plan, a ribbon or strip of paper moves at a 
uniform speed, while a pen, touching the paper so lightly as 
not to interrupt the uniformity of the speed, makes a running 
mark on it. The pen point is attached to a lever, which at the 
completion of each element the analyst presses, causing the 
pen to make a break in the vertical line drawn. The completed 
record, therefore, forms a zigzag line. The space between 
each break shows the elapsed time. Given the speed of the rib- 
bon, it is possible to read the time taken for each break, which 
represents the time of an element. If the ribbon moves for in- 
stance 20 inches to the minute, each .2 inch will represent .01 
of a minute and can be read off by measuring the distance 
between breaks with an engineer's scale divided in tenths. The 
use of the machine is limited to operations where the elements 
always occur in the same sequence, since there is no way of 
making notes on the moving ribbon without interrupting the 
speed. If a delay occurs, it must be noted on a separate sheet; 
but there is danger that the analyst, when working up the 
study, will be unable to co-ordinate the unit times and the notes. 
A uniform sequence of the elements, combined with an insig- 
nificant number of delays, is so rare, that the stop-watch will 
still have to be used on the majority of the studies and so makes 
this device for taking studies of little value. 

2. Under the other plan a time stamp somewhat similar to 
that used in stamping time tickets can be devised to register 
every .01 of a minute. An ordinary electric time-clock 
for stamping is shown in Figure 30 with an attachment for 
holding the sheets on which the analyst can record the symbol 
of the element and make the notes at the completion of each 
element. By this plan the observer presses a lever which 
stamps the reading on the time-study sheet. With the release 



174 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 




Figure 30. Electric Time-Clock with Attachment for Holding Time-Study 

Sheets 



TAKING THE TIMES 175 

of the lever the paper is automatically pushed on one notch, 
ready for the next impression. 

The clock is placed on a stand on wheels, so that it can be 
moved anywhere about the factory. The use of this time 
stamp will, of course, involve some expense in wiring the plant, 
in order to make it possible to make studies in every depart- 
ment. 

Thus far no device has been worked out which makes and 
breaks electrical contact every .01 of a minute. A 
device is, however, being worked on at present, and will soon 
be on the market, making and breaking contact every .1 of 
a minute. There seems no doubt that the mechanical limita- 
tions of the time stamp can be overcome. 

The advantage of using a mechanical device is that the 
observer is not obliged to give his attention to reading the 
watch, but can concentrate on the performance of the elements. 
It is of special assistance to the novice in taking fast times. 
There is danger, however, that such a device will become like 
a crutch — so necessary that the observer will scarcely be able to 
dispense with it — even in the cases where he is obliged to 
make use of the stop-watch because he does not have the 
equipment or because the factory has not been wired. He will 
therefore not develop the ability of the skilled observer, who 
can make the readings almost automatically. 

Taking Time Studies 

In spite of the possibility of mechanical devices the stop- 
watch is the most practical. The usual process of taking the 
times is for the analyst to select a skilled employee, watch him 
at work, divide what he does into its essential parts, and record 
the time at which each of these parts is completed. The length 
of each individual study is also a matter of judgment and 
skill. Individual studies may vary in length anywhere from 
15 minutes to several days. Except for checking conclu- 



176 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

sions, experimenting with different motions, or finding the 
effect of some one variable, short studies of 15 minutes 
to half an hour are never to be relied upon. The conditions 
may be exceptionally favorable or unfavorable at the moment, 
or the employee may be working at a spurt. Even if the 
situation is typical, the observer does not have a chance to enter 
into the swing of the operation and note on his sheet whether 
a cycle of elements is especially well performed. It is never 
advisable, therefore, to draw final conclusions as to the stand- 
ards from short studies. 

Although taking the times seems simple it calls for expert- 
ness and judgment in the observer. In reading the stop-watch, 
the mind must act instantly, in order to make a mental note of 
the watch-reading at the instant the element is completed. 
While at first this takes all the observer's attention, as he be- 
comes more experienced he gradually finds that his mind 
becomes less and less conscious that he is reading his watch, and 
finally the readings are retained only long enough to make the 
record. He notes and records on the sheet the time of the ele- 
ment automatically — as one might button one's coat. The fact 
that his subconscious mind is taking care of the time elements 
long enough to record them, enables his conscious mind to 
analyze continually just what is happening. The combination 
of this ability to see and record all matter simultaneously affect- 
ing the times and to note the watch-reading in the approved 
manner is what makes a time study valuable as a definite con- 
tribution to the formulation of standards. 



CHAPTER XII 

COMPUTING AND ANALYZING TIME VALUES 
OF ELEMENTS 

Considering Elements Separately 

The first step in analyzing the studies and setting the 
standard is to determine separately the time values of each 
element. That is, the analyst for the moment should put 
aside all consideration of the time standard of the whole 
operation and concentrate on the unit times of each individual 
element and its distinct time standard. It is only by analyz- 
ing each element in this way that he can find the causes of 
variation in the time taken for the whole operation. 

Importance of Analyzing Studies 

It is as important for the analyst to employ the best methods 
in analyzing the studies element by element as in taking them, 
for his aim is to get the most satisfactory results in the short- 
est possible time. Working up the studies in the office is much 
more than merely supplementary to taking them. This. third 
phase, analyzing the studies and setting standards, is usually 
the most difficult. Its conduct is tempered by the factors af- 
fecting the second phase — taking the studies — and the tenta- 
tive conclusions drawn from the analysis in turn affect the 
taking of times, so that each is continually reacting upon the 
other. Both are fundamental to a complete job standardiza- 
tion. 

When to Compute Studies 

An analyst's mental equipment is of value in proportion 
to his ability to observe details and his capacity to retain them. 

177 



178 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Any mental picture loses detailed definiteness as time elapses, 
especially if the passing picture is not reviewed. 

The act of recording readings of the stop-watch at the 
completion of the elements should make a vivid picture of 
that process on the mind of the observer. If he works up the 
note sheets not later than the next day, he will be able, upon 
glancing over the time study of the previous day, to remem- 
ber in considerable detail events which affected the amount 
of time taken. This power to remember is very valuable, 
because the analyst may not have recorded the circumstance at 
the moment it occurred, thinking the effect would be negli- 
gible, or perhaps he may have lacked the opportunity because 
the elements followed one another with such rapidity. If the 
notes are not worked up immediately, they lose some of their 
vividness; the observer's mind fails to retain the finer impres- 
sions which one picture after another has flashed upon it. 

Making Extensions 

The time-study sheet filled out by an observer shows oppo- 
site the symbol of the element the watch-reading that was noted 
at the moment the element was completed. This information 
appears in the column marked "Read." We will suppose that 
the watch has been kept running, according to the continuous 
method of taking studies, so that the readings represent con- 
tinuous times. If this is so, then the time taken to complete 
any one element is the difference between the second reading 
and the first. For example, the time of the first element in 
the column, "Read," is 12.60; that of the second is 13.10. 
By subtracting 12.60 from 13.10 we have .50. This last figure 
appears in the column marked "Ex." The figures appearing 
in this column — the result of the mathematical process just 
described — are called extensions (see Figure 31). 

It is fatally easy in making a long list of extensions to let 
the attention wander, and an error creep in. Since it is unlikely 



TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 



179 



Time 1:00 \o 2:00 P.M. Study No. or Symbol 23 File VER 


Observer W.E. Curley Date 10/18/20 


Operation Rip Veneer Checked by R.S.B. 


Department Saw 


3y 


lead Ex ' 


!%JSyRead Ex 




sy 


eac 


Ex 


% 


Sy 


ead 


Ex f 




Location s it W(} hr 
Operator Rank (Sawyert Rate 36 e hr ' 


a! 


•2.6a 
3.10 0.50 


s 


23.66, 

.821 


0.10 
0.18 


i 


















Williams (Off bearer) 


V 


.SS 


0.28 


s 


.9l\ 


0.09 




















Implements 


c 


.70 
5.20 


0.32 
1.50 


s 


24,00 
.10 


0.09 
0.20 




















Materials „ 


e ! 


6.08\ 0.88 


8 


.21 


0.11 




















15 Bundles 13 2 x 56- J (25 pieces per bundle) = 875 pes. 


w 


7.0S, 0.97 


s 


.29 


0.08 




















Conditions and Remarks 


f 


.11 \0.06 


s 


.38 


0.09 




















Study started upon completion of another size of veneer. 


g 


.70\0:59 


s 


.46 


0.08 




















Watch read 12:60 at start of study. 


I 


.SJ0.il 
.8910.08 
.99\0.10 
8.08, 0.09 


I 


.56 
.66 
.76 
.86 


0.10 
0.10 
0.10 
0.10 






















3 


.19 


0.11 


s 


■ 94 


oos 






















J 


.29 
.38 
.4? 
.55 


0.10 
09 
0.09 
0.08 


h 

i 

3 


.99 
25.30 

.88 


05 




k 
















a 


C 


c 


f 


(1 


h 


J 


m 


s 


S 


S 


sw 


W 


'.I 


0»True 
0.15 Mar 
0.4S | 


0.50 


ISO 


<<.,v. 


0.06 


0.59 


0.05 


o.:il 


0.15 


0.11 


0.10 


0.12 


0.12 


0.97 


>.-'4 


0.32 












0.43 
0.50 




0.08 
0.10 
0.09 
0.11 
0.10 


0.0s 

08 

0.09 
OP 
0.11 


0.11 
0.10 
0.10 
0.09 
0.10 


0.12 
0.16 


0.11 


0.22 


• 


.55 
.75 
.86 

.96 


0.10 

10 
0.11 
0.10 


y 
i 


26.10 
■60 


22 Clea 
6.50 1 
14. oii\ 
12.60. 


1 
















19.12 0.16 


26.60'gxt. 


















0.09 


0.11 


0.16 








s 


.21 


0.09 








J.&. 


































0.09 


0.07 


0.09 








s 


.31 


0.10 










































0.08 


0.09 


0.09 








s 


.37 


0-00 










































0.10 


0.07 


0.10 








3 


.45 


0.08 










































0.10 


0.08 


0.11 








S 


.50 


0.05 










































0.11 


0.07 


0.08 








S 


.59 


0.09 










































0.10 


0.09 


0.09 








S 


.68 


0.09 










































0.16 


0.09 


0.08 








S 


.77 


0.09 










































0.09 


0.10 


0.10 








S 


.84 


0.07 










































0.10 


0.09 


0.10 








s 


.92 


0.08 










































0.06 


0.1 J 


0.10 










20.03 0.11 










































0.08 


0.17 


0.10 








s 


.08 


0.05 










































0.05 


0.11 


0.08 








s 


.14 


0.06 










































0.09 
0.09 
0.09 


0.11 
0.08 
0.07 










s 


■ 24 


0.10 
0.12 
0.08 


























0.82 


1.50 


0.88 


0.06 


059 


0.05 


1.2i 


0.15 


6.7S 


0.40 


1.08 


0.50 


s 


.44 










































0.07 


0.09 


0.29 


4.29 


'\11 




s 


.52 


0.08 










































0.08 


0.11 


7-02 


0.11 


'1.19 




s 


.61 


0.09 










































0.05 


O.li 










s 


.70 


0.09 










































0.06 


0.08 










s 


.81 
.92 


0.11 
0.11 




























Total™?- 

Ti>ne.i em 


4ver r 


Detail Elements 

a Take out Blocks 


Tim* 




T 


U.04 
.11 


0.12 

0.0? 


























0.82 








b ^ 










8 


.20 


6.09 


























C Shift Saws (2) 


1.50 








s 


.27 


0.07 


























d 










s 


.35 


0.08 


























e Replace Blocks 


0.88 








s 


.42 


007 


























f Start Saw 


0.06 








s 


.51 


0.09 


























Q Rip first handful and test width 


5<J 








s 


.60 


09 


























h Stop Saw 
j 


6.05 








s 


.70 
.71' 


0.10 
0.09 


























i Change Truck (per load) 


l.Si 








s 


.92 


0.13 


























k 
I 










s 


22.01 
.20 


0.17 
0.11 


























m Mark Order No. on load just ripped 


0.15 








s 


.31 


O.U 


























n 










8 


.39 


0.08 





































s 


.46 


0.07 


























P 










8 


.55 


0.09 


























q 

r 










S 


.66 

.80 


0.11 

0.14 


























SSaw handfuWRemove from truck jig saw) 
t 


7.02 


H 


0.09. 


0.07 


8 


.88 0.08 
23.04 0.16 


























u 










s 


.16 


0.12 


























V 










s 


.21 


O.U 


























W Cut and removeurires (per bundles) 


1.19 


15 0.07i 




s 


.37 


0.10 


























X 








s 


.1,7 


0.10 


























y Necessary Delays 


050 






--> 


.56 


0.09 














































li.Ot 













Figure 31. Time-Study Sheet with Extensions 



!8o TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

that compensating errors will be made which will balance each 
other exactly, it is necessary to check the correctness of the ex- 
tensions. The proper method of checking is to total them. If 
they are correct, the total will be equal to the last reading of 
the watch. It is better to do the checking column for column 
— as should have been done in the sample time-study sheet in 
Figure 31 — since in this way an error can be run down almost 
at once. Otherwise, if there are 4 columns on the sheet and 
one error in the extensions, that one error cannot be located 
without starting again and checking all the columns until the 
one with the error is reached. 

Making Tabulations 

The next step is to tabulate all the elapsed times for each 
element under the symbol of that element. As each time value 
is posted, a vertical straight line should be drawn in front of 
the corresponding symbol. This will make assurance doubly 
sure that all the values are recorded under some symbol and 
that no value is entered twice. 

All tabulations should be made on the face of the time- 
study sheet if possible. If not, they should be made on a sheet 
permanently attached to it. It is not advisable to make use of 
the back of the sheet for tabulations and calculations, even 
though it has the value of being an economic use of paper. 
The danger is that such figures will be overlooked by those 
checking the work. 

When there are a great many values for each element, the 
quickest method of tabulating the unit times and getting the 
totals is to take them off on an adding machine which prints 
the figures on a ribbon or sheet of paper. The figures taken 
off on the machine can be pasted on a sheet of paper the same 
size as the time-study sheet in case the adding machine will 
not take an Sy 2 X 1 1 sheet, or may even be pasted on the back 
of the time-study sheet itself, since they will be too conspicu- 



TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 181 

ous to be overlooked. Pasting the strips of paper in this way- 
keeps the files from becoming bulky and also prevents mixing 
up the strips. 

Determining Machine Times 

In work done by machinery the first factor to consider is 
the running time of the machine. The amount of time which 
the machine takes to complete a cycle of a given operation can 
be determined roughly by finding with a speed indicator the 
number of revolutions the machine makes per minute. The 
average of three i-minute readings of the number of revolu- 
tions is ordinarily considered as the speed of the machine. 
There are, nevertheless, variations in machine elements. The 
speed is often materially altered by particular conditions and 
should be checked at various times of the day and under vari- 
ous circumstances. E.g., the starting of another machine 
driven from the same line shaft may slow down one already 
running. In a certain lithograph factory the starting up of a 
heavy calender machine required so much of the power that the 
speed of the other machines in the room was reduced almost 20 
per cent. Occasionally variations of one sort or another in the 
stock will cause variations in the speed of a machine, on the 
same principle that an automobile may be able to go at a speed 
of 50 miles an hour on an extremely good road, yet be able 
to go only 30 miles an hour on a slippery or poorly cared for 
road. And who knows better than the workman how much 
the machine is slowed down at times from some such cause 
as the slipping of the belt? Under some conditions, as the 
electrical engineer is aware, even the electrical power fluctuates 
to some extent. Allowances must be made to cover such un- 
usual conditions. 

The time per revolution multiplied by the number of revo- 
lutions necessary to complete the cycle might be expected to 
give the exact information as to the standard time taken by 



j% 2 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

the machine for that cycle, but in reality it gives only the 
theoretical time. The actual time is considerably greater, since 
materials have to be put into the machine and taken out and 
since some delays will always occur. 

Time Variations among Employees 

If, then, we find variations in the time taken by a machine, 
what must we expect to find when we consider the time taken 
by a man ? Too much stress cannot be placed on the effect of 
the character and state of mind of the workmen, upon their 
work, and on the fact that these variations should be studied by 
an experienced person who has been trained to do this work 
and who has properly demonstrated his ability to consider the 
human element in production. 

The complexity of the problem can be realized when the 
fact is considered that, at the end of a day's work, it seldom 
happens that two men will have produced an identical amount 
of work, except in cases where employees have arbitrarily set 
for themselves what they consider the proper amount of a day's 
work. In the present discussion the situation where employees 
thus limit output is not considered, for such a situation will 
very quickly be perceived by the analyst after he has taken a 
few studies and it will then usually be remedied by appealing 
to the workers' sense of fair play. 

The Personal Equation 

The time taken by one employee, therefore, in performing 
any one element, as well as a complete operation, usually differs 
slightly from that of another employee. In speaking of the 
"personal equation," what is meant is this aptitude for accom- 
plishing an element or operation in a less or greater time than 
some tentative base. This base, as pointed out in Chapter 
XI, should be, as a general rule, the times of the skilled em- 
ployee. The times of the other employees may be compared 



TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 183 

with the base in setting a standard within the range of the 
average employee. 

It should be repeated again, inasmuch as the term "skilled 
employee" is so often misinterpreted, that when we speak of a 
skilled employee, we are not referring either to the employee 
who rushes around as if he were going to a fire and usually 
takes longer in the end, like the bricklayer in Chapter X, nor 
yet to the exceptionally fast or exceptionally skilled employee. 

Up to the present, we have not mentioned the case of the 
exceptionally fast or exceptionally skilled employee because he 
is more or less of a rarity. Such an employee is a specialist 
in his line, has probably worked all his life at it, and — what 
is most unusual in any work — has known how to learn by 
experience. For instance, one man of this type, a carpenter, 
employed on work in Baltimore, MaVwas accustomed to re- 
fuse to do anything but indoor finishing and other interior 
trimming in residences. He worked with such rapidity and 
skill that 40 per cent had to be added to all his unit times to 
bring them within the range of the ordinary skilled employee. 
Another exceptional man was a New York monotype opera- 
tor. His speed was tried out on copy which had been given a 
number of employees in several printing establishments. It 
was found that he did the work in half the time taken by the 
other operators and could easily outdistance the demonstrator 
of the company manufacturing the machine. 

Determining the Personal Equation 

The purpose of determining the personal equation of vari- 
ous employees is twofold : ( 1 ) the unit times which are 
worked up from the time studies taken on the various em- 
ployees are put on the same basis so that the results of the 
work of one employee may be compared with those of another; 
(2) the personal equation establishes the difference between 
the skilled and the unskilled employee, and through a study of 



^4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

these differences the unskilled employee may be instructed and 
developed into a skilled workman. 

The first purpose — to facilitate the comparison of em- 
ployees — is exceedingly important. Let us assume, for ex- 
ample, that time studies are being taken on some of the 
different operations of weaving varying grades of cloth for 
a bleachery. Three studies are taken on a skilled employee 
weaving three grades of cloth as follows : 

i. 44/40 — 3&}4 " — 8.20 

2. 64/60 — 2>% l A " — 5-35 

3. 80/88 — 39 " — 5-oo 

The first figure represents the number of the study; the 
second represents the number of threads per inch of warp; 
the third represents the number of threads per inch of woof; 
the fourth represents the width of the goods in the state in 
which it is received at the bleachery; the fifth represents the 
number of yards in each pound of goods. 

Let us now suppose that three studies are taken on some 
less skilled employee who is also weaving the following three 
grades of cloth : 



I. 


48/48 - 


-38 


// _ 


- 7-i5 


2. 


64/60 - 


-38^ 


// 


- 5-35 


3- 


80/80 - 


- 39 


// 


- 4.00 



In this case a comparison could be made between the two 
employees by comparing the times on that grade of cloth, viz., 
64/60 — 38 1/2 inches — 5-35, on which both these em- 
ployees had worked. If the skilled employee's time had been 
found to be 15 per cent less than that of the less skilled em- 
ployee, a correction of 15 per cent would have been necessary 
in establishing the unit times of the less skilled employee so 
that his times could be correctly compared to those of the skilled 
workman. Of course no such correction as this of the times 
of the less skilled employee should be made on the basis of 



TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 



185 



merely one or two studies. The correction should be made 
only from a very careful analysis of a number of studies. 

The case of laying cloth is much more complicated because 
it is group work, which always adds to the problem by in- 
creasing the influence of the human factor. The following 
statement reducing to common terms the times of the differ- 
ent combinations of the group, was nevertheless determined 
upon by the analyst taking studies with different men work- 
ing together as a group. This statement represents the per- 
centage of slowness of employees working in pairs laying cloth. 

Employee 203 with Employee 209 time to be reduced o per cent 



207 
224 
204 

204 
219 



204 

anyone 

Employee 219 

205 

209 



10 

15 
10 
10 
15 



The times of Employees 203 and 209 are used as a basis. 

Figuring to Three Decimal Places 

The author recommends the practice of figuring the average 
of unit times to three decimal places, as shown in the examples 
in this chapter. This practice is of assistance to the time- 
study man and the analyst, for it shows directly that any 
figure with three decimal places is an average value and not 
a picked, individual reading. If the error should be made of 
averaging averages, which may be incorrect for a particular 
case, the error is not very apt to get by the analyst. 

In plotting variables, the chances for making errors are 
often reduced to a minimum if the time values are figured to 
a common base of per square inch or per lineal foot. It is 
advisable in these cases to plot up the time, using three decimal 
places, for the error, if taken to the nearest hundredth when the 
time is multiplied by the total number of inches or total num- 
ber of feet actually used by the workman, would be serious. 



l86 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

This practice is of great assistance in getting accurate results 
and is therefore justifiable. 

Instructing Less Skilled Employees 

The second reason for determining the personal equation 
of the various employees is that later on they will all be in- 
structed and developed, if possible, into skilled employees. If 
the analyst can put his finger on the points at which the em- 
ployee is weak, instruction can be concentrated on these points. 
The employee will be taught to use the motions employed by 
the skilled workmen. Bringing all the employees who are 
fitted to do the operation into the rank of skilled employees 
makes them of more value : ( i ) to themselves, because they 
are paid more if they are skilful; and (2) to their employer, 
because the cost of what they are producing is less per unit 
produced; and (3) to society as a whole, since a high standard 
of living is dependent upon a high standard of production. 

Variations in Personal Equations 

The variation due to the personal equation is shown on the 
opposite page in a study taken at random on a job which is 
typical of the variations found between a skilled employee, an 
average employee, and an unskilled employee. 

The average employee took about 17 per cent longer on 
the total net time for the complete operation than did the 
skilled employee. The ratio was found to be quite consistent 
in the various other operations of inside carpentry, such as 
laying hard-wood flooring, laying base-boards, putting in stairs, 
and so on, not varying more than a small percentage one way 
or the other. This percentage was, therefore, adopted on this 
particular work in comparing the over-all times of the average 
employee with those of the skilled employee. The times of 
the unskilled employee were from 10 to 100 per cent 
greater than those of the average employee. 



TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 



187 



Put on Hinges 


Skilled 


Average 


Unskilled 


and Hang Door 


Employee 


Employee 


Employee 


(a) Move tools and imple- 








ments 


0.72 


0.63 


0.30 


(b) Open box of hinges. . . 


0.94* 


0.47 


1.65 


(c) Lay off for hinges on 










1.50 


.2.08 


i-S5 


(d) Mortise door for both 








hinges 


3.10 


3-96 


4.82 


(e) Place and screw hinges 


on door (3 screws 








per hinge) 


2.11 


2-57 


2-57 


(f) Place door and mark 








jamb for hinges. . . . 


0-95 


1.72 


i-57 


(g) Lay off for two hinges 








on jamb 


i-5i 


1.88 


1.50 


(h) Mortise jamb for both 








hinges 


3.06 


3-63 


4.27 


(i) Place and screw hinges 








on jamb (3 screws 








per hinge) 


1.80 


2.98 


2-55 


(j) Hang door 


0.90 


1.05 


0-55 


(k) Make necessary adjust- 








ments to hinges. . . 


3.82 


3-57 


745 


Total net time for 








complete opera- 








tions 


20.41 


24-54 


28.78 


* Waxed all screws. 









The detail unit times of the elements on the operation given 
above vary considerably without any apparent relation. A 
further study of the detail unit times, however, will show 
that there is a definite relation between the time of the elements 
which relate to the skill of the employees. When an employee 
is 20 per cent faster in completing an operation than another 
employee it does not necessarily follow that he is 20 per cent 



l88 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

faster in performing each element; but it does mean that he 
performs practically every element in such a way as to make 
the total time for the job the shortest time possible. For in- 
stance : 

i. In element (a) the skilled employee took the longest 
time, due to the fact that he placed his tools where they were 
readily accessible later on. The unskilled employee was the 
quickest on this element. 

2. In element (b) the skilled employee took the precaution 
to wax all his screws. It meant a little extra time at the 
moment, but saved time later, on elements (e) and (i), where 
he placed and screwed the hinges. 

A careful examination of this study, in fact, shows why 
the unit times taken by the skilled employee (including some- 
times even those which take longer) should be the basis for 
the standard times. 

The variation due to the personal equation is something 
which cannot be overlooked in determining the final standards, 
but allowance of some sort must be made to cover it. The 
answer to the problem of what extra allowance to make in 
order to provide the less skilled employee with a margin of 
safety depends on such matters as the character of the opera- 
tion and the supply of labor. 

Choosing the Right Men 

In Dr. Frederick W. Taylor's 1 famous analysis of the 
operation of handling pig-iron, only one man in eight out of 
a gang of seventy-five was considered physically fitted for the 
work. This was unspecialized labor, and the analysis was made 
at a time when such labor was plentiful. It was possible, 
therefore, to transfer the seven men out of eight not fitted to 
handling pig-iron to work for which they were fitted, and to 



1 F. W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management, 191 1. 



TIME VALUES OF ELEMENTS 189 

hire and train a smaller force of physically fit men to take their 
places. In this case no allowance had to be made to bring the 
task set within the range of men not 100 per cent fitted for the 
work. 

In industry it is not possible in general to hire an employee 
who can reach an ideal standard, so the standard must be set 
within attainable reach. 

At the other extreme from Dr. Taylor's experiments on 
the handling of pig-iron is the operation of folding posters. 
Folding posters is seasonal work, and girls are transferred to 
it from other jobs when this kind of work is put through. 
During the season the original studies were taken, tall girls 
were employed, whose long arms were admirably suited to the 
necessary reaching. The following season, however, the only 
girls available for the work were short. They could not do 
it in the time allowed the first girls, because they could not do 
the reaching so easily. Studies were taken on the short girls, 
and an additional allowance was given them in which to com- 
plete the operation, because of the longer time it took them 
to reach across the table and the greater exertion entailed in 
reaching. 

Analyzing Standard Time Values 

The analysis of the time values of the elements shows what 
factors have an effect upon them and to what extent condi- 
tions of the operation, of the machine, of the stock worked 
upon and of the mill itself, are important, as well as the fac- 
tor of the personal equation. All of these must be considered 
in analyzing the times taken by the element, in order to deter- 
mine for each individual the time value which is to be the 
standard. 



CHAPTER XIII 

DETERMINING STANDARD TIME FOR THE 
OPERATION 

Elements in Standard Time 

The standard time in which an operation should be per- 
formed is made up by adding to the sum of the time of each 
element a percentage for necessary delays, plus a percentage 
for delays for the necessities of life, such as getting a drink, 
plus a percentage for fatigue. This may be expressed in a 
formula : 



i Sum of the 
Standard) standard 



time / ' I time of each | 
element 



+ 



% for av. 
times for 
necessities 
of life 



/% for 
I fatigue 



% for av. 
times for 
necessary 
delays 

The body of the standard time consists, as a rule, of the 
sum of the standard times of each element. The determination 
of the standard time for an element requires experience and 
judgment on the part of the analyst. It is not a straight aver- 
age, not the unit time recurring most often in the better per- 
formance, nor the average of the means, although all these may 
play a part in determining it. It can be found only by carefully 
computing and analyzing the times of the individual elements 
as recorded on the note sheet, giving consideration to all factors 
affecting performance, especially that of the personal equa- 
tion. 

Average Time Values 

The time value with which the analyst is concerned is the 
average time which an element should take, in contrast to 

190 



DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 



I 9 I 



the average time which it actually does take. In order to deter- 
mine this, all "abnormal values," i.e., those which are extraor- 
dinarily large or extraordinarily small, should be taken out for 
the time being. The average should then be found for the re- 
maining values. 

Abnormal Time Values 

The usual causes of abnormal values are : 

1. Some delay which will seldom occur. 

2. Some mistake on the part of the observer which can 

generally be discovered by the fact that either the 
time of the element preceding or of the element fol- 
lowing will be abnormal, while the sum of the two 
abnormal times will be about the same as the sum 
of the average times of these two elements. 

3. Some variation in the performance of the element, 

which should not be repeated. 

4. Wandering of the employees' attention. 

Whenever possible, the analyst should make a note of any 
such cause during the progress of the study. Often, however, 
the unit times are of too brief duration to allow this, or it is 
not evident at the moment that anything out of the normal is 
occurring. 

An absolute rule cannot be laid down for determining 
what are called abnormal time values, because of the fact that 
each element should be considered upon its own merits. As 
a general rule, however, it can be said that the abnormal times 
should not be used when determining average values ; but that 
gross or straight average values should be used when the 
elements show variations from causes which cannot be pre- 
vented. In general, gross average time values should be used, 
retaining the abnormal time values under the following condi- 
tions : 



102 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

i. Elements which occur in construction work, like exca- 
vating, construction of buildings, etc. 

2. Elements which occur on more or less non-repetitive 

work, such as mill-wright's work or repair work. 

3. Elements which depend upon a material which in itself 

varies to a degree, and which is manufactured by an 
outside concern whose product is not under the con- 
trol of the manufacturer using it. 

4. Elements which occur in connection with "group 

work." 

Since it is not possible to lay down an absolute rule for 
determining abnormal time values, the way to make the de- 
termining of them clear is to give an example. The following 
case shows which values are considered abnormal and the 
reasons for so considering them. 

The operation in question — loading, moving, and unloading 
a truck — consisted of three elements. The symbol of the first 
element was (a), of the second (b), and of the third (c). 
The times listed in the following tabulations represent those 
taken from an actual time-study sheet. The abnormal values 
are starred. They are not added in the total, with the result 
that the divisor is reduced by the number of starred values. 





(a) 


(b) 


(c) 


I. 


0.28* 


0.49 


0.08 


2. 


0.1 1 


0.40 


O.IO 


3- 


O.IO 


0-45 


0.09 


4- 


O.IO 


0.50 


0.08 


5- 


0.12 


0.52 


0.12 


6. 


O.I4 


0.88* 


O.I I 


7- 


0.12 


0.36 


0.07 


8. 


0.13 


0.56 


O.O9 


9- 


0.13 


0.50 


O.I4 


10. 


O.27* 


0.32* 


O.II 


11. 


0.12 


0.52 


O.IO 


12. 


0.09 


0-55 


0.09 



DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 



193 



13- 




0.47* (ta 


Ik) 


0.51 


0.07 


14- 




0.09 




0.60* 


0.12 


IS- 




0.1 1 




0.42 


O.II 


16. 




0.13 




0.51 


0.09 


17- 




0.12 




0.49 


0.08 


18. 




0.12 




0.42 


0.07 


19. 




O.II 




0.50 


O.IO 


20. 




0.09 




0.56 


0.15* 




17) 


i-93 


17) 


8.26 


18) 1.68 



Average 



0.113 



0.486 



0.094 



The reasons why the values are starred as abnormal are 
as follows : 

Unit Time 1. (a) This is the first value after the opera- 
tion was started. Part of this time is chargeable to "getting 
ready to start" and should have been so recorded. 

Unit Time 6. (b) This time is very large, with no note 
on the time-study sheet to indicate anything unusual. 

Unit Time 9. (c) 10 (a) and 10 (b). These elements 
were performed consecutively. Any one of them is distinctly 
out of line with the average time for the particular element. 
The sum of the times of all three elements, however (namely, 
.14 -f- .2J -J- .32 = .73) corresponds fairly closely to the sum 
of the average values of a -f- b + c (namely, .113 + .486 
+ .094 = .693). In all probability, the observer allowed the 
times of these three elements to overlap instead of keeping them 
distinct. 

Unit Time 13. (a) The reason for starring this value 
is self-evident. The observer noted the fact that the employee 
was held back by "talking." 

Unit Time 14. (b) As with unit time 6 (b), there is 
no reason given why the value is extraordinarily large. 

Unit Time 20. (c) This was the end of the operation. 
Part of this time is chargeable to "changing jobs." 



I9 4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

In the case of the four exceptions cited above — in construc- 
tion work, in non-repetitive work, in work where the varia- 
tion in material cannot be prevented, and in group work — - 
the abnormal values would not have been starred, with the 
exception of value 13 (a). In regard to this value the observer 
especially noted that the unit time included unnecessary ''talk- 
ing." If the employee had stopped working entirely while talk- 
ing, the time could have been recorded as a separate time value. 

Determining Abnormal Time Values 

Individual cases will come up occasionally that require ma- 
ture judgment. Time may often be saved in deciding whether 
a value is or is not abnormal by determining at a glance : ( 1 ) 
how much weight the value in question has in relation to the 
average unit time of the element; and (2) how much weight 
the element in question has in relation to the total time of the 
operation. 

For example, in element (b) in the above list, three values 
are starred as abnormal. Let us assume that this element 
consists of "placing material in machine." There may be a 
difference of opinion as to whether the fact that the material 
is bulky makes it impossible always to place it in the machine 
without a hitch, or whether the bulkiness ought to have no 
effect on the time taken by the element. An experienced analyst 
would not spend long debating the pros and cons of the prob- 
lem, unless he saw that the difference in the result was of 
enough moment to make deliberation worth while. In the case 
of element (b) the average with the abnormal values taken 
out is .486, whereas the gross average (i.e., the average in- 
cluding the abnormal values) is .500, which is only 3 per cent 
greater. The time taken by element (b), however, represents 
over two-thirds the total time of the operation. Great care, 
accordingly, should be exercised in determining the average 
time of this element. 



DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 



195 



If the element under consideration takes 80 per cent of 
the total time of an operation, the time allowed for its per- 
formance cannot be chosen too carefully. If, however, it 
represents only about 8 per cent of the total time, the maxi- 
mum variation that could result would be considerably less 
than 1 per cent, which would be negligible. 

Good Time Values 

Every operation has a rhythm, so that the worker swings 
from one element into the next without a jar. The tempo of 
the rhythm or swing varies, even in the same person, under 
seemingly identical conditions, with such factors as his state 
of mind, health, or fatigue. All of these things affect the time 
of completing an element. The result is that the average times 
may vary considerably in different studies. It has been found 
by years of experience that, although the average times vary, 
good times picked from various studies are quite comparable. 

The term "good time" is used to describe a time of the 
shortest duration which occurs with a reasonable degree of 
frequency. Although the decision as to what constitutes a 
reasonable degree of frequency might at first appear to be a 
question of judgment, an example will make clear that there 
is a definite principle and method of determining the good 
times. To make clear what is meant by a good value, the same 
list of unit times is used that was used before, with the excep- 
tion of column (a), to show what was meant by an abnormal 
value. Elements (b) and (c) are chosen, because (b) repre- 
sents a case where the unit times are of long duration, and (c) 
represents a case where the unit times are of short duration. 

Good time values should not be confused with the practice 
of many so called time-study men of using the absolute mini- 
mum time in every case for each element. This practice can- 
not be too strongly condemned for minimum times are as a 
rule abnormally quick times. 



196 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



(b) 




(c) 


0.49 




0.08 


0.40 




0.10 


0-45 




0.09 


0.50 




0.08 


0.52 




0.12 


0.88 




O.I I 


0.36 


0.36 = Picked 


0.07 


0.56 


good time if only the 


0.09 


0.50 


first 10 values were 


0.14 


0.32 


available. 


O.I I 


0.52 




O.IO 


o-55 




0.09 


0.51 




0.07 


0.60 




0.12 


0.42 


0.42 = Picked 


O.II 


0.51 


good time if only the 


O.O9 


0.49 


last 10 values were 


0.08 


0.42 


available. 


0.07 


0.52 




O.IO 


0.56 




0.15 



17)8.26 

0.486 = Average time 
0.42 = Picked good time 
when all 20 values are 
available. 



0.08 = Picked 
good time if only the 
first 10 values were 
available. 



0.07 = Picked 
good time if only the 
last 10 values were 
available. 



18)1.68 



0.09 — Average time 
0.07 = Picked good time 
when all 20 values are 
available. 



For element (c) .07 is the picked good time when con- 
sidering the 20 values. It happens also to be the minimum 
time, and occurs three times. Had it occurred only once, or 
5 per cent of the time, .08 would have been selected instead. 
In the upper half of the column there are only ten values, and 
.08 occurs twice, together with an .07 and some .09 values. 
.08 is accordingly picked as the good time for these ten values. 

For element (b) .42 is the picked good time of the twenty 
values, since .36 occurred only once. Had there been only 
ten values as in the upper half of the column, .36 would have 
been selected. 



DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 197 

The good times are of assistance in determining the aver- 
age times to use, because they are less affected than the average 
times by temporary conditions. The average times and the 
good times should be plotted independently and the deductions 
drawn separately. They should then be compared. Where 
there is any radical difference in the conclusions drawn, fur- 
ther study will reveal the cause of difference. The method 
of comparing good and average times will be taken up again 
later, in the paragraph on determining curves of variables. 
From this discussion it will be evident that the good times 
are used as a gage to determine the correct relation between 
the unit times of variable elements. 

Constants 

In many operations there are elements called constants 
which do not change with the varying requirements of a given 
order. A typical constant is the element of starting a train. 
It makes no difference whether the train is about to set out 
on a three or a three-hundred mile trip. The time it takes for 
the train to start and get up momentum should always be the 
same if all conditions of cars, track, weather, and the like 
are identical. For this reason the element of starting a train 
may be called a constant. There are constants in almost every 
operation. For instance, in the operation of laying cloth, the 
element of "obtain shears" is a constant. 

The observer simply lists, under their respective heads, the 
average and the good unit times of the constant element, from 
the various studies. Analysis will then be made in order to 
determine the correct time for the element. 

Variables 

The majority of elements are variables, which are not so 
simple to analyze as the constant elements, since a variable 
is an element which changes according to the requirements of 



198 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

any given order. In the operation of laying cloth, for in- 
stance, the element of straightening is a variable. 

Determining Standards for Variables 

A list for the variable of a number of average or good 
times means nothing, because it affords no basis of compari- 
son. Take, for instance, the variable of walking. The amount 
of time taken depends, for one thing, on the distance walked. 
It requires much less time per foot to walk 30 feet than it 
does to walk 10 feet. If the analyst who studied the walking 
element in laying cloth had listed all of the times of walking, 
the list might have looked somewhat like the one below : 



Time in 


Distance walked 


No. of time 




minutes 


in feet 


study 




0.04 


6 


1 




0.12 


32 


2 




0.09 


22 


3 




0.05 


12 


4 


0.07 


16 


5 




0.03 


6 


6 




0.05 


8 


7 




0.14 


34 


8 




0.10 


22 


9 


1 


0.07 


16 


10 




0.04 


6 


11 




0.09 


20 


12 


1 


O.I I 


30 


13 




0.08 


18 


14 





One glance at the figures shows that they are practically 
meaningless when tabulated in this way. It would not be 
possible to determine from this tabulation the time to walk 
any given number of feet not included in the list. The best 
way of arranging these figures so that they can be easily read 
is to plot them in graph form on co-ordinate paper. 



DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 199 

The unit times of a variable element can be compared 
readily only if they are plotted on a co-ordinate paper, show- 
ing the variation in time against the corresponding variation 
in the element, so that the law connecting the two is evident. 
The time may be plotted on the abscissa, or the horizontal scale, 
against the number of feet on the ordinate, or the vertical 
scale. Then the time for any given length may be found by 
following the point for this length upward until the curve 
is reached, and then reading on the horizontal scale at the left 
the time opposite this point on the curve. In the variable of 
walking given above, the variation in time in minutes was 
plotted against the number of feet walked. A curve shown 
in Figure 2> 2 was drawn by plotting the values given above, 
which makes it possible to determine the time required to walk 
any distance from 4 feet to 32 feet. To walk 12 feet, for 
example, would require .04 minute, while to walk 24 feet 
would require .09 minute. 

After several time studies have been taken on any opera- 
tion, and the extensions and tabulations made, each variable 
should be considered, in order to determine how to plot its 
unit times. The time values must be plotted in such a way 
as to show the relation of the time taken to the length, width, 
surface, area, weight, or whatever factor is the cause of the 
variation. The time may be plotted on the vertical scale and 
the length, area, or other determining factor or factors may 
be plotted on the horizontal. An example of plotting time 
against length is shown in Figure 33 where the curve was 
drawn to show the time for cutting paper. From this curve 
the time to make the cut may be found for any given job. 

Comparing Points in Curves 

Considerable time may be saved by noting opposite each 

■point as it is plotted the study number, the employee's number, 

and any fact of importance. Take, for instance, the variable 



20O 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



element of "straightening," in cloth. As soon as several 
studies have been taken, the analyst should commence to plot 
the time values, using the time in minutes against the length 



0.15 

0.14 

0.13 

0.12 

0.11 

0.10 

0.09 

0.08 

0.07 

0.06 

0.05 

0.04 

0.03 

0.02 

0.01 

0.00 

8 10 12 14 16 IS 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 

Figure 32. Graphic Curve Showing Time Necessary to Walk from Four to 
Thirty-Two Feet in Laying Cloth 

in feet. He will also note, opposite each point entered, the 
study number or any fact which appears significant. As new 
time values are found from the studies, he will plot them also. 
The fact that a number of the points have already been plotted 











































































































































































en 

■*-> 

3 




























9 




























S 






































































Laj 


ing C 

falkin; 


oth 




















St 


andard 


Time ii 


1 Minut 


es per ( 


)perati 


jn 








































































L 


ength 


in Fee 


t 













DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 



20 1 



will be of assistance, as additional points are entered. The 
time values previously entered, with the notes opposite, will 
afford a basis of comparison for each new value. If the new 



0.07 



0.06 



0.05 



0.04 



0.03 



0.02 



0.01 



0.00 

































3 






























+■> 

W 

a 






























0) 






























m 

$ 






























a 
































s 






































































Len 


gthoJ 


Cut 


n Inc 


les 













2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 

Figure 33. Graphic Curve Showing Time Taken to Cut Paper According 
to Length of Cut 



point is out of line with the others, this will be evident and 
the analyst can investigate the reason at once. He may find 
that the cloth is of a slightly different grade and that a sepa- 
rate curve must be drawn for straightening this grade; or he 
may find that the group is poorly teamed up, in which case he 
can make a correction for the factor of the personal equation 
which will probably bring the point within range of the other 
points. In any case it will be possible for him to make an 
additional note in explanation. Extraordinary time values 
are shown up immediately by this method. 

Good Times as Check on Curve 

It is not always evident what curve to draw through a 
number of points, for there may be several which could be 



202 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

drawn. Figure 34a and Figure 34b show examples of the 
different curves drawn for the same unit times of the element 
of "pulling cloth." It is sometimes practically impossible by 
simply looking at two curves, such as those in Figures 34a 
and 34b, to say at once which is correct, no matter how experi- 
enced the analyst may be. The curve which the novice would 
choose would invariably be the one representing his attitude 
toward the work. If he were inclined to give the workman 
the full benefit of the situation he would choose the curve in 
Figure 34a. If he were more interested in striking an aver- 
age he would choose Figure 34b. An experienced man in 
giving a decision would prove which curve was correct. He 
would plot up his good times, as in Figure 34c and draw in 
the curve. Then he would superpose Figure 34c on Figure 
34a and on Figure 34b, so that they would coincide as nearly 
as possible in terms of length. In this way he would prove 
Figure 34a to be correct for shape and direction. It is in an 
analysis of this kind that the value of plotting up the good 
times is evident. 

The percentage of increase of the curve of the average 
time over the "good" curve will run, as a general rule, between 
15 and 35 per cent where the operations are partly hand and 
partly machine. On machine work, with almost no hand 
work, there will be very little difference ; while on an operation 
which is done entirely by hand the percentage of difference will 
be nearer 50 per cent. Experience in many kinds of industry 
and many kinds of work shows consistently that the two curves, 
the average and the good, will be symmetrical and that the aver- 
age values will be the greater by approximately the same per 
cent from one end of the curve to the other. 

Plotting Variables 

The method of procedure in determining the proper curve 
is briefly as follows : 



0.11 



0.10 



0.09 



0.07 



0.06 



0.11 



0.10 



0.08 



0.07 



0.06 



0.10 



0.09 



0.07 



0.06 



0.05 

















c 

! 


^ r- 












r 


: 


c 


C 






m 






c 


C ^0^ 




c 
c 








+-» 

3 

G 
§ 


>^ 


c ^« 


















> 


: 
















































5 


r 












5 


c 


> 


c 

> 


< 






en 

a> 
+-» 

3 

c 

9 




: 


> 


> 


<y^ 










c 

(V 

g 


> 
s 


< 

c 


;>'-' ; 


^ 












—- -^ 


( — 














































































V 

3 

e 






< 


) 

C 

r 


( 


> 


^- < 


) 




0) 

E 


( 


c 
1 


> 


( 


< 


) 


























1 






Length 


in Feet 











10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 

Figure 34. Unit Times for Pulling Cloth 
203 



26 



204 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

i. Compare the curve drawn through the points of the 
good times with those drawn through the points of the average 
times, by superposing one curve on the other. 

2. Figure in percentages the increase of the average times 
over the good times for the minimum, average, and maximum 
points of the curves. 

If these percentage increases are practically uniform for all 
three conditions, it is safe to assume that the average curve 
chosen is the correct curve. If these percentage increases are 
not commensurate with each other, investigate the reasons by 
referring to the original time-study sheets, if necessary, and 
even in certain cases by taking some additional studies. The 
correctness of the deductions will be established infallibly by 
means of the new values. The time taken in checking up and 
verifying conclusions is time well spent, because it will give 
the analyst complete confidence and will insure the correctness 
of the standards. 

Orders for the full line of a product do not always come 
into a plant at one time, convenient as this would be for the 
analyst. As a result it is often impossible to set standards for 
all conditions affecting the variable elements at the time the 
original analysis is being made. This is to some extent true 
in every business, and especially so where there are many 
special orders or a line of goods of extreme styles, or where 
the work is seasonal. 

Exterpolating Standards 

Sometimes the effect of all possible conditions on the time 
of an element may be estimated by extending the curve, that 
is by exterpolating. This has been done in Figure 35 for the 
element of pulling cloth. Points have been exterpolated on 
the curve of the average times, to show how many minutes 
would be required up to 34 feet in length. This method is, 
however, more or less indefinite. As shown in Figure 35, it is 



DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 



205 



difficult to say which of the two dotted lines is correct. Even 
when time values are found by exterpolation, the analyst 
should keep track of the nature of the orders coming in. When 
an order comes through which covers some variable whose 



0.12 
0.11 
0.10 

0.C9 

0.03 

0.07 h 

0.06 

0.05 

0.04 







Dotted Section of Curve 1 
Showing Method of Exterpolation 






































3 






: 


!• — 


js-c:' 


C^ 


— 

































"i 

















3 
















t**> 
























i 
















































































H 
































































































Lei 


lgth 


in F 


eet 



















2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 
Figure 35. Graphic Chart Showing Method of Exterpolation 

value he has estimated by exterpolating, he will immediately 
take steps to have the proper time studies made and to have 
these studies compared with the more or less tentative con- 
clusions reached. 

Exterpolating to determine extreme values is useful be- 
cause it is often advisable to put the standards into effect be- 
fore all possible conditions are determined. If the analyst 
waits until all possible conditions have been studied, the com- 
pany loses the benefits of increased production and the em- 
ployees the increase in wages. 

"Guess" Allowances 

The percentages to allow for delays, necessities of life, 
and fatigue should not be "guess" allowances of predeter- 
mined percentages on the sum of the times of the elements, as 
is too often done. One "guess" allowance is often intended 
to cover not only actual delays, but the inevitable slowing up 



2 o6 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

of the employee's speed when he is not under the artificial 
stimulus of observation. Both the fatigue and delay allow- 
ances should be kept distinct. The fatigue allowance should 
be sufficient to bring the standard time to the point where it 
is possible for the employee to maintain it year in and year 
out. 

Necessary vs. Unnecessary Delays 

Not only should the delay allowance always be kept dis- 
tinct from the allowances for necessities of life and fatigue, 
but unnecessary delays should not be confused with necessary 
delays. It is difficult to make a general classification of delays, 
since the conditions in different operations, different factories, 
and different industries, vary greatly, making what would be 
necessary in one case unnecessary in another. Unnecessary 
delays constitute avoidable lost time due to such conditions as 
a wrong truck, or due to conditions not yet corrected. Neces- 
sary delays may in general be said to result from particular 
conditions which occur rarely. The employees, for example, 
may not always be able to handle the stock in just the right 
way, and if so, allowance should be made for this fact. 

In determining the standard time, it is very important that 
the observer should have kept distinct the elements and delays 
incidental to the performance of the elements, listing each 
under the approximate symbol. Otherwise it will not be ap- 
parent from the studies why the time values of the elements 
vary and to what extent the additional time taken in some cases 
was due to a necessary delay. It is often difficult for the novice 
to keep the delay factor separate from the actual performance 
of the element. In one case an assistant in a study on an opera- 
tion in the clothing industry showed delays amounting to only 
2^4 per cent, which, considering the nature of the operation, 
appeared surprisingly small. Accordingly the analyst checked 
the study by himself, taking a study on the same operative 



DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 207 

doing the same work under the same conditions. The total 
time on the operation was practically identical on the study 
taken by the assistant and that taken by the analyst, but the 
analyst's study showed delays amounting to 16 per cent while 
the delays recorded by the assistant showed only 2J/2. 
The assistant, as it proved, had lumped in many delays occur- 
ring during the performance of an element as part of the time 
value of that element. The conclusions which would have 
been drawn from the assistant's study and the standards set 
thereby would have been incorrect had not the analyst taken 
the time to check the work of the assistant and run down the 
inaccuracy. 

Allowance for Necessary Delays 

The percentage for the necessary delays should be de- 
termined in the following way. First, make a tabulation of 
the total times taken in performing the work as shown on all 
the time-study sheets, including the time for necessary and 
unnecessary delays. Then tabulate the total times of the 
necessary delays, and in a separate tabulation set down the 
total times of the unnecessary delays. The net time for per- 
forming the work is determined by subtracting the time in 
the second tabulation, of the necessary delays and the time of 
the unnecessary delays in the third tabulation, from the total 
time of the first tabulation. This may be expressed in a 
formula : 

( Times shown ) ( Necessary ) ( Unnecessary ) 

Net time = 1 ,. } — { , , V — { , , J } 

{ on studies ) ( delays J ( delays \ 

Second, figure the percentage of necessary delays by divid- 
ing the time of the necessary delays by the net time, multiplied 
by 100 in order to get the percentage. 

Necessary Delays 

X I0 ° = P er Cent of Necessary Delays 

Net Time 



208 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Abnormal seasonal conditions should be taken care of by 
making a study of them at the period when their effect is most 
pronounced. Extra allowances must be made to cover them. 

On the plating operation in a paper mill, i.e., the operation 
which puts a linen finish on stationery, the seasonal condition 
occurs during the winter months. Static electricity is gener- 
ated through the friction of the paper with the linens and 
zinc plates going between the rolls of the plating machine and 
remains in the paper with the result that the paper sticks to 
everything it touches. It was found through study that during 
the winter months 10 per cent should be added to the standard 
time to cover this condition. 

Allowance for Necessities of Life 

The amount of time to be allowed for the necessities of 
life varies considerably with the character of the operation, 
and in some cases even with the season of the year. In con- 
struction work, for example, which has to be done out in the 
sun without any shelter overhead, the workmen will require 
a great deal larger allowance in hot weather for taking many 
drinks of water, wiping off perspiration, and so on, than they 
will require in cooler weather. Thirty-three and one-third per 
cent was found to be the amount required on a construction 
job for these necessities of life whenever the men had to work 
out in the hot sun and the temperature was over 90 degrees. 

Allowance for Fatigue x 

In this chapter, fatigue is considered only from the point 
of view of the necessity of determining what percentage to 
allow for rest on the particular operation after every effort 
has been made to reduce any strain involved. The problem 
of fatigue in its large aspects, and the means of determining 
and reducing its seriousness, will be treated in the next chapter. 

1 For discussion of fatigue, see Chapter XIV. 



DETERMINING STANDARD TIME 209 

There are two points which should be considered in deter- 
mining the amount of fatigue, in any given operation. 

The first point to consider is the number of studies taken. 
If the operation is complicated, the analyst will have on file 
a great many studies covering all the different periods of the 
day. These will give a fair average of fatigue at all hours. 

The second point to consider is the supplementing of the 
detail studies by over-all studies taken during a period of sev- 
eral days. The analyst follows the jobs through, informs 
himself exactly as to what is occurring and notes all abnormal 
conditions. The over-all studies will help to point out the 
possible danger of cumulative fatigue. 

In operations which have a great deal of variety, the nature 
of the work provides rest automatically. The fatigue factor, 
therefore, is small on such operations, usually not more than 
5 per cent. In other operations, such as those involving con- 
siderable danger if the workman relaxes his attention, or those 
in which there are fast moving parts continually passing before 
the eyes, the percentage of fatigue is much greater. It may 
amount to as much as 50 per cent. The relation of hand to 
machine work is still another thing which determines the 
amount of fatigue. There are some operations which involve 
strain, mental and physical, which cannot be relieved and 
therefore must be allowed for. Occasionally, fatigue allow- 
ance has required as high as 100 per cent of the working time 
of the operation. 

The determination of the fatigue allowance and its addition 
to the total, complete the determination of the standard time. 



CHAPTER XIV 

FATIGUE 

Determining Fatigue Allowance 

Although fatigue is an important factor in industry it can 
be properly taken care of by the competent analyst. The 
standard time for performing an operation consists, as de- 
scribed in the preceding chapter, of the sum of the times of 
the elements plus percentage allowance for necessary delays, 
necessities of life, and fatigue. Of all the allowances, that 
made for fatigue is the most complicated, and therefore the 
most difficult to measure. Nevertheless job standardization, 
by showing exactly what is involved in each element of an op- 
eration and by showing the exact conditions of performance, 
provides a basis of knowledge as to the amount of rest needed 
to protect the average workman from fatigue. The fatigue al- 
lowance varies with each operation as well as with each factory 
thus requiring an exact determination for each particular case. 

Serious Import of Fatigue 

Both from the point of view of maximum production and 
from the social point of view fatigue is a serious matter. The 
individual who is fatigued cannot do such good work or so 
much as if he were not fatigued. He is unable to keep his 
attention concentrated on what he is doing; he has not the 
necessary patience. The results of fatigue often show them- 
selves before the individual is conscious of being tired. They 
become more apparent, however, as his weariness increases. 
The work is not turned out at the former speed, and should 
it require careful handling the spoilage is greater. As the 
quality of his work deteriorates, so do all his actions show the 



FATIGUE 211 

result of his physical depletion. He becomes irritable, he can- 
not digest his food, and he is unable to resist disease. If he 
is tired beyond the point at which he can regain his strength 
in an hour, over night, or even over the week-end, he has 
reached a point of "cumulative fatigue," and if work tires a 
man so that he suffers from cumulative fatigue there is some- 
thing wrong with the man or with the work. 

There are other reasons which have brought the subject 
of fatigue into the foreground of public attention. Workmen 
stress this unknown factor in order to safeguard themselves 
against unregulated pressure for greater production; the unions 
sometimes use it to maintain standards of production which 
allow the least skilful and slowest workman to earn a decent 
wage. Philanthropists interested in the welfare of the labor- 
ing class unwarrantably imagine that workmen are being driven 
to the limit of physical endurance. 

Despite these considerations, fatigue is not the factor it is 
commonly imagined ; general progress in industry has lessened 
fatigue-producing conditions. 

One extremely important safeguard against fatigue that 
has gradually come into use is the decrease in the hours of 
labor. The 12-hour day, once general, now lingers on in 
comparatively few industries. Some states limit the hours of 
women workers to 48 hours a week. The 8-hour day is 
accepted as the government standard. Under the shorter day 
it is generally possible for a man to do more in an hour without 
wearing himself out; the pace does not have to be sustained 
so long and the time for rest is greater. Shorter hours have 
in some instances proved economically practicable and have 
helped to lessen fatigue. 

How the Employment Department Reduces Fatigue 

Fatigue is also guarded against in factories that use modern 
methods by means of the employment department. This de- 



212 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

partment under the direction of a competent head has the qual- 
ifications needed for every job card-indexed and filed. When 
help is needed the interviewer can choose intelligently a man 
fitted for the job. By such means as this a blacksmith is not 
given a watchmaker's job, nor is a tubercular employee put 
to work where dirt or abrasive particles are in the air. The 
blacksmith's job is also made as easy as possible for him and 
methods are introduced to lessen the strain of close attention 
on the part of the watchmaker. 

Mechanical Devices to Reduce Fatigue 

Definite efforts have been made in progressive plants to 
lessen fatigue by mechanical improvements. The windows of 
modern factories are no longer painted to keep the employees 
from looking out and incidentally to keep out the purifying 
effects of air and sunshine. Neither are the windows nailed 
down, but are made easy for the employees to open. The 
relation of eye-strain to fatigue is given study, and provision 
made for proper lighting, both natural and artificial. The 
contrast between a factory built today and one built a quarter 
of a century ago is marked. The windows of the modern 
factory are large, the lighting is good, and the physical con- 
ditions are conducive to health. Good ventilation and good 
lighting can be achieved even in factories built before the im- 
portance of the physical equipment was realized. Cotton-mills 
have already introduced mechanical devices which carry off 
some of the lint, and humidifiers for conditioning the atmos- 
phere. 

Such safeguards show how certain loopholes through 
which fatigue may attack the employees have been closed. To 
prevent very great physical effort, to decrease the strain that 
at first is not so obvious, such as standing all day, or working 
on a bench that does not fit one's physical dimensions, care- 
fully thought-out mechanical devices are introduced. 



FATIGUE 



213 



The Analyst's Problem 

No matter how well conditions may be adapted to jobs the 
analyst finds that a residue of fatigue appears in every form 
of work. 

In an attempt to cover all contingencies, by arriving at 
general laws, tests have been made both in laboratories and 
factories with but little success. These tests usually involve a 
method of showing relative production at various hours or 
under various conditions and draw the conclusion that a de- 
crease in production is an evidence of fatigue. The best prac- 
tical method of finding the amount of fatigue incident to the 
performance of each operation is to analyze that operation 
part by part, as is done in the course of job standardization, 
at the same time taking into consideration all other observable 
evidences of fatigue shown in the operation. 

Utilizing Mechanical Methods 

The analyst naturally turns to special account mechanical 
devices for lessening fatigue. Chairs of the right height and 
type may relieve fatigue when the worker has had to stand all 
day. Sometimes an employee may even tend two machines 
without walking from one to the other if his chair is placed on 
wheels that run on tracks. Where a regular chair is imprac- 
ticable a collapsible stool attached to the machine may be pulled 
out and used by the employee. Trucking material may be 
eliminated for the operator by transferring that part of the 
job to a "moveman" who is hired for such work. A bracket 
attached to a truck used for carrying coils of wire did away 
in one factory with the strain of supporting the weight of the 
wire while moving it. On a certain operation where a girl 
used dies for cutting out labels a spring platform was used to 
reduced the force of the jar caused by her mallet (Figure 15). 
In many factories a large part of the heavy lifting and pushing 
done by men could be done by machinery. 



2i 4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Reducing Fatigue by Instruction 

The analyst further assists in reducing fatigue by having 
the employees taught the best method of working. Some 
workmen use motions that involve a needless waste of strength 
and time, and it is the task of the analyst to introduce simpli- 
fied methods — and then to see that each workman uses them. 

A case in point is the operation of cutting paper. The 
size of a sheet before cutting may vary from 40 inches X '60 
inches to 20 inches X 30 inches. The weight of paper for 
500 sheets, or a ream, on a 17 inches X 22 inches basis, may 
range from 30 pounds up to 180 pounds. The size of the 
sheet after cutting may be no more than 4 inches square. The 
stock may have been put through the printing press a dozen 
times, so that it must be handled with the greatest care to guard 
against spoilage, which otherwise would be large. It was found 
by analyzing the work of a number of cutters that each one 
lifted a different amount of paper to the machine, some lifting 
it with the sheet flat, others folding one edge over, and still 
others making a double fold. Some took 3 lifts to fill the 
machine while others took 6. A study of all the conditions 
made it possible to decide the correct quantity to lift with the 
least effort. The amount of wrist and arm strain required 
by the method some of the men were using was so great that 
had this method continued in use only men of exceptional 
strength could have done the work for any length of time. 

Rest Periods 

The analyst may also find that it is advisable to give a 
fatigue allowance in the form of rest periods of a definite 
length at definite hours of the day. Where rest periods have 
been satisfactory three conditions have been observed : 

1. Standards of performances have been set. 

2. The rest periods have been adapted to the needs of each 

operation separately. 



FATIGUE 215 

3. The co-operation of the employees has been gained, 
so that they observe the rest periods voluntarily. 

Rest periods without standards of performance are mean- 
ingless. The management, knowing practically nothing about 
the operation, should not attempt to interfere at this point. 
The employees are working with different methods, at different 
speeds. If they are on day-work most of them are probably 
resting much more than necessary; while if they are on piece- 
work, methods and paces are so different that each will need 
his rest period at a different time of day. 

Even with definite standards, the rest periods should be 
adapted to the needs of each operation separately. A rest 
period of ten or fifteen minutes in the middle of the morning 
and afternoon may be necessary on one operation in a depart- 
ment, while on another operation it may not be nearly enough 
or come too late to be of much benefit. One operation may 
need frequent shorter rest periods, and another require one 
long stretch of complete relaxation. As a rule, however, it is 
practically impossible to enforce rest periods when they are 
not adapted to each operation separately. 

It is absolutely necessary that the employees themselves 
be taught to appreciate the value of rest periods and to take 
them voluntarily. It is impracticable to force each group of 
workmen to stop work at a different hour of the day; and 
since they are paid by the amount they produce they will not 
stop unless they realize that in the long run the rest is to their 
own advantage. 



i &> v 



Percentage Allowances for Fatigue 

In any case, the analyst should follow the practice of mak- 
ing a fatigue allowance. This allowance is a percentage of the 
operating time as determined by time study and job analysis. 
The percentage is found by analyzing the time studies. 



216 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Sometimes it is necessary to make special studies to find 
the amount of fatigue involved in the operation. As a rule, 
however, this may be determined from studies already taken. 
If enough studies have been made they show conditions and 
consequent fatigue at all hours of the day — early in the morn- 
ing, at midday, and in the low-tension hours around 3 
o'clock. Long studies give a better evidence of fatigue than 
short, since during a short period the employee may have been 
working at a spurt, which he could not keep up week in and 
week out. Moreover it is a great help in determining the 
fatigue allowance if the analyst has familiarized himself with 
the operation at the start by taking an extended over-all study 
over a period of two or three days. The fatigue allowance 
is not standard but is adapted to the demands of the operation 
in question. The fatigue factor is small on operations having 
a great deal of variety, because rest is provided automatically, 
and therefore, the allowance may not be more than 5 per cent. 
On other operations, such as those involving considerable 
danger when the workman relaxes his attention, or those in 
which there are fast moving parts continually passing before 
the eyes, the percentage of fatigue is much greater. It may 
amount to as much as 50 per cent. Occasionally fatigue allow- 
ance has required as high as 100 per cent of the working time. 

Use of the Follow-Up 

The analyst also provides the employee further safeguard 
against overwork by reports of daily production. Any failure 
to earn the standard pay is, through these reports, brought 
to the attention of the analyst, who investigates to learn the 
cause of failure. In some cases the cause may be ill health, 
requiring medical attention. The analyst will also be on the 
watch for any cases in which the employee is exceeding the 
standard time by an extremely large margin, because this prob- 
ably means that he is overdoing. 



FATIGUE 217 

Fatigue should be considered on each operation separately. 
By means of mechanical devices and instruction in the easiest 
methods and motions of doing the work the analyst decreases 
fatigue. Irreducible fatigue is provided for by a time allow- 
ance. The danger factor of fatigue is thus reduced to the 
lowest possible quantity. 



CHAPTER XV 

CHECKING STANDARD TIMES 

Testing the Standards 

After the standard time for the operation has been deter- 
mined by use of the formula discussed in the preceding chapter 
it must be checked before it is summarized, indexed, and filed. 
The standards set, however, are absolutely of no value unless 
the employees are able to work in accordance with them day 
by day, year by year, without increased physical or mental 
fatigue. 

Consequently this checking is done in the factory, against 
actual output. If the conclusions are not proved by this test, 
the standards should be given a rigid examination, but it does 
not necessarily follow that they are wrong. There is no need 
of becoming panic-stricken if the employee, on being informed 
that a test is to be made to prove the conclusions, either beats 
the standard or fails to make it. This statement requires, 
perhaps, some explanation. 

Beating Standard Times 

If the standard time has been set so that the employees can 
make it day after day and year after year, it is always pos- 
sible for a skilled employee "to let out a notch or two" and 
beat it by a large margin. 

In a certain box factory, where packing cases are made 
for shipping goods, the workmen have repeatedly beaten the 
standard time by as much as 40 per cent by applying them- 
selves with spurts of energy for the purpose of "snowing 
under" the men on the next operation. Figure 36 shows the 
results of a number of studies on the employees when working 

218 



CHECKING STANDARD TIMES 



219 



at a normal pace and when working at a spurt. This does 
not indicate that the standard times were too high, since such 
spurting tends to overwork and should be discouraged. In 
another case in "framing" — i.e., rough carpenter work, such 



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20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 
Figure 36. Time Studies of Workmen Working Normally and under 

Pressure 

as cutting floor joints for wooden-house construction — the 
employees did the work in about one-half the standard time, 
because they wanted to prove, as they thought, that the stand- 
ard times were wrong. The individual jobs — as, for example, 
framing a few joists around a stair-well — were very short. 
The men were given several jobs at one time, some of which 
took only eight minutes to complete. In cases of this kind 
they were expected to go directly from one job to the next. 
By working at top speed on the first day, the men finished 
a day's work in about half a day. If they had been allowed 
to continue at this speed, they would have exhausted them- 
selves in a week or two. 



220 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

The answer of the analyst to the first day's performance 
was to talk over with the workmen the foolhardiness of their 
procedure and show them by records of their own previous 
performance the reasonableness of the times allowed. On 
the second day he gave them job tickets for only a few jobs 
at a time, covering a period of approximately one hour's 
work. When they had finished these and came back for more 
tickets, he refused to give them any more until the time 
allowed for doing the work just finished was up. In this 
way he showed them how to keep up a pace just fast 
enough to complete the work in the standard time. He was 
convinced they would realize after they had tried it that this 
speed was the one they would be able to keep up day in and 
day out without detriment to their health. In this way the 
fairness of the standards was proved to the men, so that no 
further trouble was experienced when they were asked to work 
according to the standards. 

Falling below the Standard 

Occasionally the employee will react in just the opposite 
way, and will move around as if he were going at lightning 
speed and still fail to accomplish the job in the standard time. 
When an experienced analyst is making a check study, he will 
observe the work of the employee closely and will take enough 
notes to enable him to put his finger on the unnecessary move- 
ments and delays which drag out the work to an undue length 
of time. 

The real cure for situations like this, however, rests in 
the co-operation between the employees and the analyst which 
results in mutual benefit to the employees and the company. 

Variations of Minor Importance 

The problem of determining what major elements to allow 
for the performance of a given operation is comparatively 



CHECKING STANDARD TIMES 221 

simple, so that there is little danger that the analyst will neglect 
to consider any of them in his computation. There is danger, 
however, that he will not allow properly for a number of more 
or less minor elements, or elements which occur infrequently. 
For instance, a minor element, like putting oil occasionally 
on the side of a hand-saw to prevent it from sticking, may 
be a small item in point of time; yet if it is done, say, once 
every fourth sawing, it is of real importance in the total. The 
way to make allowance for this element without complicating 
the figuring by having an additional item to add to every 
fourth sawing is to divide the time for oiling by four and add 
this time to the standard time for the sawing element. 

Checking Standards by Time Studies 

In order to be sure that all the minor elements have been 
taken into consideration the final standards should be proved 
in the following manner by using at least three to six of the 
complete time studies on the operation. These three studies 
given below were picked out as samples of cases in need of 
adjustment. Take one study at a time and run a check as 
follows : 

Study i 

Minutes 
i. Total time as shown on time-study sheet 225.72 

2. Unnecessary delays as taken off time study 16.24 

3. Time to perform the operation of 26 cycles omitting 

unnecessary delays 209.48 

4. Time to perform the operation according to standard 

as set = 7.85 minutes X 2 6 cycles 204.10 

5. Per cent increase of item 3' over item 4 2.6% 

Study 2 

1. Total time as shown on time-study sheet 429.18 

2. Unnecessary delays as taken off time study 3I-I7 



222 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

3. Time to perform the operation cf 43 cycles omitting 

unnecessary delays 398.01 

4. Time to perform the operation according to the 

standard as set = 7.85 minutes X 43 cycles -f- .76 
minutes 338-3 1 

5. Per cent increase of item 3 over item 4 18% 

Study 3 

1. Total time as shown on time-study sheet 139-24 

2. Unnecessary delays, as taken off time study 27.09 

3. Time to perform the operation of 13 cycles omitting 

unnecessary delays H2.15 

4. Time to perform the operation according to the 

standard as set — 7.85 minutes X I 3 cycles -\- 4.49 
minutes 106.54 

5. Per cent increase of item 3 over 4 5% 

If item 5 in any case shows more than 1 per cent difference 
the cause must be found. The reasons for the difference 
should be investigated along the following lines : 

1. Was the figure for the unnecessary delays as used in item 
2 correct? The unnecessary delays may have been included 
in the time values of the elements, instead of being kept dis- 
tinct, or delays that were in reality unnecessary may hav^e been 
tabulated on the sheets as necessary. In either of these cases, 
apply corrected figure to items 2 and 3. 

2. How many abnormally large or small values were on 
this study? If many, by what amount? Figure this and 
apply correction to items 1 and 3. 

3. Did any new factors enter into this performance? If 
so apply correction to item 4. 

4. Was this study taken on a slow workman? If so apply 
correction to items 1 and 3. 

Re-figure item 5 using corrected time of item 4, and if it 
still varies more than 1 per cent, the original time study should 
be reanalyzed and checked for probable error or for elements 



CHECKING STANDARD TIMES 223 

which have not been properly considered in the first tables. 
It is a discrepancy such as this which necessitates the "proving 
up." 

In study 1, the cause of the difference was the number of 
items encircled as "abnormal values." 

In study 2, the cause of the difference was due to a com- 
bination of minor elements. One was trouble with the stock, 
another was that the employee studied used motions which 
were necessary to him, but which were not used by the other 
employees. Still another was that the machine studied was so 
located that it was not easy to get the stock in, a condition 
which should have been corrected before the standard times 
went into effect. 

In study 3, the trouble was due to mechanical features of 
the machine, which were to be improved. 

This proving out brings such features forcibly to the atten- 
tion of the analyst. 

Testing Causes of Delay 

When delays are brought out definitely in this way it is 
possible to decide what procedure is most advisable. There 
are three courses open to the analyst : 

1. Make the necessary small allowance to cover the delay. 

2. Set a standard which will apply to the operation to be 

done before corrections have been made with the 
understanding that new standards will be set as soon 
as the corrections have been perfected. 

3. Hold off setting the standard until all the conditions 

can be perfected. 

Making Small Allowances 

In the first course great care must be exercised not to take 
the path of least resistance and fail to investigate carefully 



224 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

whether it is practicable to effect a cure in order to overcome 
the delay. It is by a I per cent saving here and another I per 
cent there that the total savings can be appreciably increased. 
This point is well illustrated in the setting of the standards 
for reeling and inspecting coated paper which is fully de- 
scribed in Appendix A. 

The operation consists of trimming both edges of coated 
paper while it is being reeled from a large roll to another roll 
and inspected at the same time. The inspection consists of re- 
moving by tearing out all of the coated paper which has any 
imperfection on it and then piecing the two ends of the good 
paper together so as to make the roll of paper one continuous 
sheet. The improvements in this threefold work brought to 
light the fact that there was : 

i. Increased output due to: 

(a) Improved methods of saving time and labor. 

(b) Bonus incentive. 

(c) Graphical competition accomplishment charts. 

2. Improved quality due to : 

(a) Training operations. 

(b) Making bonus dependent upon careful work. 

3. Reduction in waste of labor and materials due to : 

(a) Knowledge of how to handle material. 

(b) Introduction of labor-saving devices. 

(c) Creation of centralized planning department. 

(d) Systematic care of machinery. 

Before job standardization had been made on this opera- 
tion the clerical work necessary for putting through the jobs 
and keeping the records required a clerk in the department, 
but it proved possible to transfer this work to the clerical 
force in the planning department, which was equipped to do it. 

The percentages of saving by simplifying the clerical work 
were small — namely .74 per cent by preparing labels in the 



CHECKING STANDARD TIMES 225 

planning department, 1.09 per cent by revising the job ticket, 
— but added to other small savings, such as 1.02 per cent by 
storing the operator's samples and tags at his bench instead 
of across the aisle and 1.14 per cent by using a spring clip 
in place of a hook — they give some idea how an accumulation 
of small percentages mounts up to quite a factor in production. 
The tabulation of estimated increases in output resulting from 
the changes is given herewith. 

Per cent of in- 
crease on previ- 
ous annual out- 
put 

Tender to change rolls and extra shafts : 

Feed roll . 8.75 

Finished roll 1 5.46 

Elimination of wrapper on feed roll due to 

special truck 6.65 

Preparation of glue and oiling machines. . 8.57 

Ends slit for splices instead of folded and 

torn 5.52 

Cleaning after hours by janitor 11. 18 

Band on finished roll replaced by gummed 

label 4-87 

Labels prepared in planning department. . 0.74 

Revised job ticket 1.09 

Reduction in samples due to standardization 5.95 

Samples and tags stored in operator's 

bench instead of across an aisle 1.02 

Variable speed motor giving a uniform 
speed 59.1 per cent greater than previ- 
ous average speed 8.67 

Decreased down time due to better planning 12.10 

Spring clip for counter instead of hook. . . . 1.14 

Automatic return for threading paper 

through the machine 0.97 

Total annual increase due to improved 
methods 9 2 -68 



226 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Setting Temporary Standards 

The second course, namely, the setting of a standard which 
will apply to the operation before corrections have been made, 
with the understanding that new standards will be set as soon 
as the corrections have been perfected, is advisable where : 

1. The change is large enough, so that the employees will 

appreciate a corresponding change in the time 
allowed. 

2. Production must be increased as quickly as possible in 

order to relieve congestion at this operation. 

3. The day-work rate or the old piecework rates must be 

increased in order to satisfy the employees on their 
pay. 

4. The changes cannot be brought about within a reason- 

able time, either because some research is first re- 
quired or because one machine or mechanism must 
be developed, which must be tried out over a long 
period to determine its value. 

In most factories the employees know what it means to 
have their day-work rate or their piecework rates changed 
under varying alibis, and as a result they are naturally sus- 
picious of every change. In the past where the rates have been 
set haphazardly there were many justifications for making 
changes. On the other hand many changes were simply made 
to squeeze more work out of the employee or to decrease the 
amount he could earn. The experienced analyst realizes this 
only too strongly and only after mature consideration will he 
consent to set up standards which require an understanding 
with the employees that they will be changed as soon as con- 
ditions are perfected as outlined. 

Although the third course, namely to refrain from setting 
the standards until all the conditions are perfected would be 
the ideal method to pursue, the method adopted must also be 



CHECKING STANDARD TIMES 227 

practical. The considerations involved in the second course, 
such as the immediate need for increased production to relieve 
congestion, the pressure for immediate increase in rates, the 
length of the time before improvements can be made, these are 
the factors which determine whether it is practical to wait 
until the conditions in the third case are perfected. 

Using Data to Make Needed Allowances 

In addition to bringing the attention of the analyst to con- 
ditions affecting production which he might otherwise over- 
look, the checking of standard times also furnishes data from 
which to make special allowances for certain peculiar condi- 
tions in the case of failure to make the standard time due, not 
to the fault of the employees, but to the recurrence of these 
peculiar conditions. 



CHAPTER XVI 

DECIDING THE RATES ON THE OPERATION 

Explanation of Rates 

The term "the rates on the operation" covers both the 
amount of wages and the method used in paying the wages. 
Since the observations of the analyst have informed him more 
fully regarding the characteristics of the operation than any 
other member of the organization, it is for him to recommend 
to the management in what way and to what amounts the em- 
ployees working on any particular operation should be paid. It 
is a practical question which he must settle at once, since it is 
of great importance both to the employer and to the employee. 

Rates — Employee and Employer 

The employee, being human and not working for his health, 
is interested first of all in the amount of money he may expect 
in his pay envelope at the end of the week. He is after that 
interested in the amount of work he is required to do in order 
to receive this pay. With these two factors before him — in 
addition to other factors not so tangible and of varying im- 
portance with different men — he believes he is in a position to 
decide whether or not the job interests him. He naturally also 
compares the amount of skill and effort required and the 
amount of pay he can earn on his job with the requirements 
and earnings for other jobs in the same factory and vicinity. 

The employer as well as the employee has these same inter- 
ests at heart, namely, to have an equitable adjustment between : 
(i) the amount produced as against the cost of producing 
(which includes wages), and (2) the earnings of the employees 
computed in accordance with the difficulty of the operation. 

228 



DECIDING THE RATES ON THE OPERATION 229 

The employer is anxious that the employee should receive 
a share of the returns coming from increased production, where 
the returns have been brought about through the combined 
efforts of the management and the employees. He realizes 
the justice of paying the employees in proportion to the re- 
quirements — danger, monotony, application, experience, etc. — 
of their work. And job standardization makes it possible to 
determine the relative weight of these factors. 

Methods of Payment 

The first point to be considered is the development of a 
method of payment which shall be adapted to the operation 
to be paid for. There are many methods of payment, having 
different advantages varying according to the factory and the 
conditions. Some of these are day work, piecework, Towne- 
Halsey premium plan, Rowan premium plan, differential piece- 
work, task and bonus, or time work with bonus. A thorough 
treatment of each of these, listing the advantages and disad- 
vantages, would occupy considerable space, and would after 
all be only a recapitulation of ground already ably covered in 
a number of books and articles on the subject. The subject 
in this chapter is considered only as another step in work 
analysis. 

The analyst "should keep in mind that the fewer methods 
of payment introduced, the simpler and more effective will be 
the understanding the employees will have, and the easier will 
be the figuring and making up of the pay-roll. To have only 
one method of payment — or at most two, since day work 
cannot be entirely eliminated — is the ideal toward which every 
concern should strive. 

Fitting Payment to Operation 

The ideal of having only two methods of payment, how- 
ever, is not always practicable or even always desirable. Its 



230 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

complete realization might prevent a method more equitable, 
both to the workman and to the company. 

Laying gold leaf for titles on book-covers may be cited as 
an example of an operation in which it proved more economical 
to adopt a complicated form of payment. The gold letters are 
imprinted on book covers in the following way : First, that 
part of the cover on which the letters are to be printed is wiped 
with a cloth containing a thin oil, so that the gold leaf will ad- 
here. Secondly, several pieces of gold leaf are cut to the size re- 
quired to cover the letters, and are then laid accurately by means 
of a gage. Thirdly, the cover is put into a machine similar 
to a printing press and is stamped with a hot die which comes 
down on the gold leaf and firmly sets the gold letters on the 
cover. The gold leaf not touched by the hot die can then 
be wiped off with a composition sponge from which the gold 
is afterwards reclaimed. The standard times of elements 
involved in laying gold leaf on book covers is represented in 
Figure 37. 

The material, namely the gold leaf, is the largest item of 
expense, and economy is dependent upon the skill of the work- 
men in using the least possible quantity of it. For this opera- 
tion, the method should be to pay the employee first for the 
saving of material, second, for the quality of the work, and 
third, for the actual quantity produced. In order to induce 
the employee to attend primarily to the saving of material a 
further proviso might be added to the effect that : ( 1 ) No 
reward for quantity will be paid unless the rewards both for 
saving in material and for quality have been earned; (2) no 
reward for quality will be paid unless the reward for saving 
in material has been earned. 

Although an exception may be made to provide a special 
method of payment, such as the above, such a method should 
be treated as a special condition. In general a method of pay- 
ment which is simple enough to be applicable to all of the 



DECIDING THE RATES ON THE OPERATION 



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232 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

operations not on day work should be worked out and adhered 
to. 

Day Work 

The floormen and some of the men on general work are 
paid by the hour or day, irrespective of the quantity of work 
they do. Foremen are either paid in this way by the day, or 
else are on salaries. If they are on salaries, their pay is not in 
proportion to the time they put in at the factory, nor do they 
receive extra pay for overtime, but, on the other hand, they 
are paid uniformly despite absence on holidays, vacations, and 
because of sickness. Since foremen are on the one hand 
executives and represent the company and on the other hand 
are employees, it is not advisable that they be paid bonuses, 
except where there is some general profit or bonus-sharing plan 
throughout the factory. A system under which workmen on 
piece or bonus work receive more than the salaried foremen 
is demoralizing. The foreman's pay should be in proportion 
to his ability in the same way as the salary of any other execu- 
tive, and this means that some means of measuring his success 
or failure should be devised and followed up religiously. 

The method of keeping and figuring the pay of day workers 
enumerated below is the simplest. It requires only a daily 
record of the number of hours actually spent at the factory, 
multiplied by the hourly. rate. Work which cannot be charged 
up directly to the product being manufactured is the only kind 
which should be paid by the day-work method. The time of 
day workers and week workers which cannot be charged up 
directly to the product must be absorbed by a general overhead 
expense which is prorated to the direct chargeable time. 

Piecework 

A very common, and, from the employers' standpoint, 
popular method of payment is that of piecework. Its popu- 



DECIDING THE RATES ON THE OPERATION 



^33 



larity is due to the ease with which it is understood by the 
employees and with which it is figured by the pay-roll depart- 
ment. The great objection to piecework is that it has been 
grossly misused by some employers, who cut the rates when- 
ever they saw that the employees were getting what seemed too 
much money. Sometimes this rate-cutting was due to setting 
some piece rates so high that a few employees were able to 
earn, without effort, such high wages that they threw the 
entire wage scale of the factory out of balance and caused 
dissatisfaction among those less fortunate. Invariably a situa- 
tion of this sort is the result of the piece rates that have been 
set at a guess. A piece rate, however, set accurately as de- 
scribed in this book, is a reliable method of payment. Never- 
theless, piecework is not recommended, because its abuse has 
associated it in the minds of employees with rate-cutting, so 
that even its proper use is liable to arouse ill-feeling. 

Time Work with Bonus 

The method of payment which is most satisfactory is time 
work with bonus, which may be defined as a method of pay- 
ment by which the employee is properly compensated for turn- 
ing out a product of standard quality in standard time, both 
of which have been scientifically predetermined. Its advantages 
are that : 

1. It puts before the employee a measure of accomplish- 

ment. 

2. It pays a regular day or week wage on which the em- 

ployee can depend. 

3. In addition it pays the employee a bonus as his share 

in the profits. 

4. It enables the management to locate the cause of low 

earnings and correct the condition by splitting the 
work into relatively small units. 



234 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

5. It provides for the readjustment of wages per hour 
similar to the readjustment of wages per day, with- 
out in any way affecting the time standards. 

Under time work with bonus every employee on the opera- 
tion is paid for each hour he puts in at the factory at a rate 
which is determined by a number of considerations, such as 
skill, experience, supply and demand, and so on. This hourly 
rate is called the "base rate" of the operation. The question of 
the amount of money per hour, or base rate, is one which should 
be settled between employer and employee and should not be 
confused with the amount of time taken to complete a given 
quantity of work. 

If the employee is an experienced workman, as he is sup- 
posed to be, he should be able to turn out each hour or day a 
certain amount of work of a certain quality, the amount of 
which is determined through job standardization. If he ac- 
complishes this, he is a more valuable workman than one who 
turns out but half the quantity, and he should, therefore, par- 
ticipate in the savings or the profits made possible through his 
application to his work and through the quality and quantity 
which is the result. This share in the earnings which he has 
helped to make has been termed a bonus. 

Figuring the Pay-Roll 

The bonus should be expressed in terms of time, just as 
are all items on the pay-roll, in order to make it easy to figure. 
If the bonus is a percentage of the standard time it is only 
necessary for the clerk to add the percentage to the time taken, 
and then to multiply the total by the base rate. 

When an employee is given a job for which the standard 
time is two hours and the bonus rate is 25 per cent, and he 
completes it in the standard time (i.e., in two hours), he is 
paid not only for the two hours taken but, in addition, for 
25 per cent of the two hours (i.e., for half an hour). With 



DECIDING THE RATES ON THE OPERATION 235 

a base or hourly rate of 60 cents an hour for every hour put 
in at the factory, he will receive 60 cents an hour for the two 
hours actually spent on the work (i.e., $1.20) plus the half- 
hour of bonus time (i.e., $.30), making a total pay for the 
job of $1.50. 

Pay Earned on Time Work with Bonus 

2 hours time taken 
25% of 2 hours Yi bonus earned 



2Y2. hours total time paid for 
$ .60 rate per hour 

$1.50 total pay earned, equivalent 
to $.75 per hour. 



The Base Rate 

The first thing to determine is the base rate of the opera- 
tion to be considered. It has already been stated that the base 
rate should be at least the same as the "market rate" of the 
operation, and that the amount should be subject to the same 
influence as the day rate. 

The usual way of letting the day or base rate adjust itself 
is, however, the cause of much inequality of pay among the 
employees. The relative requirements of the operations are 
not taken properly into consideration in paying for them. 
It is not at all rare to find in the same factory where two jobs 
are of exactly the same sort, requiring the same breaking in 
period and application, and involving the same risk or 
monotony, that one workman is paid a great deal more than 
another. Little attention is given such factors as these, except 
when a job is so difficult or hazardous that the employees 
refuse to work on it unless they are paid extremely high wages. 
Even then it is a recognized fact that many jobs which in- 



236 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

volve the greatest risk to life and limb are notoriously under- 
paid. 

Some of the factors which should have consideration are : 

Experience 

Application 

Monotony 

Risk 

Physical strain 

In individual factories, there may be in addition other factors 
of as great or even greater importance. 

Determining Base Rate by Survey 

A survey primarily for the purpose of determining the 
relative weight of these factors should be made before a de- 
tailed analysis is begun. Such a survey may last from a few 
weeks to a couple of months, depending upon the number of 
operations in the factory. The data would incidentally be of 
use in many ways. The employment department, for instance, 
needs information of a similar nature in hiring employees for 
various jobs ; and the one survey might be made to serve two 
purposes. The knowledge gained by the survey will in some 
cases make possible the shortening of the period of job stand- 
ardization because it will supply preliminary information 
which will make a direct approach to the studies somewhat 
easier. 

In order to work out this balance between operations it 
is necessary to tabulate the knowledge gained by the survey. 
For instance, the operations and the relative rate of the fac- 
tors might be summarized on one sheet. On the left-hand side 
of the sheet, the operations should be listed and across the top 
should be listed the various factors influencing the pay. The 
relative weight of each factor might be shown by a number. 
The larger the sum of the numbers for the operation, the larger 



DECIDING THE RATES ON THE OPERATION 



237 



should be the pay. This should not be taken to mean, however, 
that an operation for which the number is twice as large should 
be paid twice as much as another operation. For greater 
exactness, it might be possible to weigh the numbers in ac- 
cordance with the importance of the factor. 

Operations, in the first place, divide themselves into two 
classes : ( 1 ) those which are highly specialized, 1 requiring 
high-grade, trained employees to do the work; (2) those which 
are unspecialized, and for which it is possible to hire a green 
hand and break him in after a reasonable period of time. 

In considering highly specialized operations it is futile to 
endeavor to weigh the factors against each other. The pay 
is reached almost entirely through the relation of supply to 
demand. 

The contrary is true of the unspecialized operations. Some 
are much easier and more attractive than others, and the aim 
should be to make the pay in proportion. The commonest 
factors are risk, monotony, and application, physical strain, 
and experience. 

A few operations in a button factory have been listed in the 
way they would appear in such a summary. The operations 
are: (1) tool sharpening, which is highly specialized, (2) free- 
hand sawing, which involves considerable risk, (3) gage 
sawing, which is the same as hand sawing in almost every re- 
spect, except that a mechanical guide materially reduces the 
risk, and (4) belt sorting, which is a simple operation. 

Bonus 

The percentage of bonus allowed is also dependent on a 
number of factors. Once determined, the bonus should never 
be changed except for a most important consideration. It 
should be guaranteed in the statement of company policy that 

1 Highly specialized, not in the sense that the division of labor has been carried to its 
furthest development, but that specialized training is necessary. 



238 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

neither the standard time rate nor the bonus will be decreased. 2 
The analyst must accordingly consider very carefully what 
would be a just division of the savings. 

The amount of saving will be an important factor in this 
consideration. Every wise manager wants to pay the em- 
ployees just as much as the operation they are working on can 
stand. But, again, the particular operation must be considered 
in its relation to other operations. It might be that on opera- 
tion i some improvement in machinery had increased produc- 
tion ioo per cent; while on operation 2, there was no improve- 
ment possible on the machine. If the application required to 
earn the bonus was practically identical on both operations, 
it would be manifestly unfair to pay a bonus of 50 per cent 
on operation 1 while paying a bonus of only 25 per cent on 
operation 2. If the increase in production on operation 1 was 
largely the result of the fact that the employees had been loafing 
on the job previous to analysis, a larger bonus for it than for 
operation 2 would be even more unfair. 

The bonus should be at least 33 1/3 per cent over the 
standard time with an absolute minimum of 20 per cent. Any 
amount less will fail to create interest. Thirty-five per cent 
is a better figure. The amount of bonus paid depends entirely 
upon the industry and conditions at the particular plant, and no 
general rule can be laid down to cover it. 

Proportion of Base to Bonus 

The bonus should not be paid in place of wages. Neither 
should the base rate be less than the usual market rate. If 
the base rate is low and the bonus paid in place of wages, the 
employees will not receive a fair wage when they are on day 
work. This may occur either because they are obliged to do 
day work if the job has not been studied, or because they are 



2 If the market rate is increased or decreased, it is the base rate which will be raised or 
lowered: there will be no effect on either the standard time or the bonus rate. 



DECIDING THE RATES ON THE OPERATION 



239 



not yet skilled enough to do the job in the standard time. The 
principle of time work with bonus is to make proper com- 
pensation for quality and quantity, and not to penalize low 
quantity. 

A low base with a bonus, part of which is in lieu of wages, 
is unsatisfactory to the employees. In one factory, for exam- 
ple, the practice of paying a low base rate had been established 
some years ago, at which time not so much consideration had 
been given to psychology and the relations between labor and 
capital. The rates which had been established and the treat- 
ment which the employees had received had been most satis- 
factory. Nevertheless there came a time when they asked the 
company to reconsider their method of payment. Their sug- 
gestion was to have the base rate raised to correspond with the 
ruling wage paid the general help in the department and to 
have a correspondingly smaller bonus paid than under the old 
plan. This left their total wage equal to what they had been 
receiving, which was perfectly satisfactory to them. In other 
words, the unit cost of producing was approximately identical 
under both arrangements. The company was glad to have this 
plan put into effect immediately. The difference between the 
two plans can be brought out best by tabulation. 

Old Plan New Plan 

Base rate per week. . $15.00 $21.00 

Bonus 100 per cent.. 15.00 Bonus 45 per cent 9.45 



Total $30.00 $30.45 

Company Policy Statement 

The first rates set through job standardization are of great 
importance in that they mean the determination of the company 
policy on all rates set throughout the factory. The intro- 
duction of time work with bonus marks a change in the com- 
pany policy; and it is only natural that the amount of base 



240 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

rate and the bonus on the first operation, the increase over the 
former wage, and all the details of the way in which it is first 
introduced should be regarded by them as significant of future 
policy. It must be kept foremost in mind that if it is found 
necessary to make any change at a later date such a change will 
greatly diminish the faith which the employees have had in the 
company. 

Every company should formulate in writing a definite 
policy as to the principles on which it bases its wage payment, 
so as to prevent misunderstandings as far as possible. This 
is most essential before any of the employees are started on 
any method of payment differing from that under which they 
were hired and have been working. The fact that time work 
with bonus is not generally understood by the employees 
makes it especially necessary to give a full statement of the 
company policy in all its applications. This statement should 
include explanation not only of its main features, but also 
of the way in which allowances are given for abnormal con- 
ditions, learning, or group work. It includes in addition the 
statement of the principle of the guaranteed rate, which con- 
sists of a guarantee that for a definite period the employee will 
receive at least the amount of money he has been earning 
during the past months, whether he earns the bonus or not. 
If the principle of setting the base rate at the customary day 
rate is followed, the guaranteed rate is rarely needed. But 
there are times when the employees' earnings are so high as 
to be out of all proportion to the earnings of even some highly 
trained employees. In such cases where the earnings are out 
of line, it is advisable to set the base rate at the market rate, 
instead of at the previous earnings, guaranteeing, however, 
at least the former amount over a period of, say, three months. 

All such questions, which are bound to arise sooner or later, 
should be covered at the outset. The company policy on time 
work with bonus should be stated in writing as clearly, com- 



DECIDING THE RATES ON THE OPERATION 



241 



pletely, and as definitely as possible, signed by the proper 
authority, and posted in a conspicuous place in all departments 
operating under the method. 

Standard Form of Statement 

The recommended standard form for this statement fol- 
lows : 

Company Policy on Time Work with Bonus 

I. Standard Time : 

A — "Standard Time" will be set for all the operations of each 
department. 

B — Additional time will be allowed for employees to compensate 
for any abnormal or unforeseen conditions arising on a 
job on which a "Standard Time" has been set. 

C — Additional time allowance will be given each employee who 
starts on bonus work under instructions. The amount of 
additional time and the period over which this time applies 
will vary with the skill required to do the work, the length 
of time the employee has been on the operation, and the 
number of changes in method of operating which are 
adopted. 

D — A bonus will be allowed only on the "Standard Time" in 
which the work should be completed, and not on the extra 
allowed time. 

E — The "Standard Time" allowed on any operation will never 
be decreased unless improvements are made which change 
the operation materially. 

II. Money Payments : 

A — A "Base Rate" or rate per hour will be set for each opera- 
tion in the department in which Time Work with Bonus 
is used. 

B — The bonus will be a percentage addition to the "Standard 
Time" provided the time taken to do the job is equal to 
or less than the time allowed: otherwise, the employee will 
be paid at the base rate for the time taken. 



242 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

C — When starting on bonus work any employee who does not 
earn more than his present rate will be guaranteed this 
rate for a period of three months. This is called his 
"Guaranteed Rate." 

D — When a bonus worker is required to work for less than a day 
on work of his own class which cannot be put on a bonus, 
he will be paid the Base Rate for the time actually put in 
on the work. 

E — When a bonus worker is required to work for a day or longer 
on work of his own class which cannot be put on a bonus, 
and if he has been earning his bonus 75 per cent of his 
total working hours for the past period, he will be paid 
on the same basis as the average of his past month's earn- 
ings. 

F — When a bonus worker is transferred temporarily to a different 
class of work, he will be paid the Base Rate of his regular 
work, provided the work is done within the Standard Time, 
unless he can make more money on bonus at the new job. 

G — In case a bonus worker makes a mistake in his work and 
does not rectify it at the time he does the work, he will 
not receive his bonus. 

H — No bonus worker will be given additional time to correct his 
mistake. 

I — If any work is discovered to be faulty by another department, 
the amount of bonus paid for the job in which the work 
is faulty will be deducted from bonus earned and not yet 
paid. 

J — If one member of a group of employees working together on 
an operation makes a mistake, none of the other employees 
of the group will earn a bonus on this job. 

K — If a new employee is teamed up with experienced employees 
on group work, extra time will be added to the time al- 
lowed to compensate for the inexperience of the new 
employee. 

L — The overseers or foremen will be on a Day Work basis with 
no bonus payments, as they represent the company and are 
responsible for the quality and the quantity of the product. 



CHAPTER XVII 

SUMMARIZING THE STANDARDS AND 
INSTRUCTIONS 

Final Steps in Standardizing 

The final steps in "analyzing the studies and setting the 
standards" consist of : (i) summarizing the standard times in- 
to final form so that they may be readily used in determining 
the amount of time the employee should take to complete a job; 
and (2) writing instructions for the employees so that they 
shall have definite information before them as to the manner 
of doing the job and thus be able to complete it within the 
standard time. This completes the work of determining the 
standards and is the last act before the standards can be put 
into effect. The time required for these steps is considerable, 
rarely less than half as long as the time of "taking the studies" 
and sometimes fully as long, if there are many and complex 
combinations of variables. 

Final Form of Standards 

The process of summarizing the standards into final form 
consists of taking the standards determinined for each element 
or combination of elements and putting them into some record, 
such as tables or curves. The standards of each element 
occurring in an operation should, if possible, be expressed in 
the same unit — area, or linear feet, or weight, so as to simplify 
computing the time a particular job should take. In some 
cases certain of the elements in an operation may be dependent 
upon the weight of the material being operated upon, while 
other elements in the same operation may be dependent upon 

243 



244 TIME STUDY AND J° B ANALYSIS 

the bulkiness of the material. An experienced analyst, in such 
a case, should spend considerable time and thought working 
out some means of expressing the time of the element in a 
single unit and in this way simplifying the final tables. 
Although this process takes a great deal of his time it will prob- 
ably result in simplifying the figuring of the amount of time 
required for a job so that this work can be done by a clerk 
rather than by a more highly paid, practical workman, who 
at first had been necessary. The standard times, or the time 
allowance, under various conditions and requirements should 
then be condensed and expressed in a form which is as simple 
as possible. 

Instruction Cards for Operations 

The instructions for employees cover the standard method 
of performance. A comprehensive knowledge of the operation 
is, of course, necessary for the successful maintenance of 
standards. The instruction cards give all the information 
which bears on the operation with reference to the machines, 
tools, equipment, and material. 

This portion of the card is essential because some em- 
ployees may understand the operation imperfectly and others 
may, perhaps, have been incorrectly taught. The instructions 
also describe the quality standard and the standards for each 
condition, if there is more than one. 

When quality standards cannot be expressed in words they 
should be illustrated by having exhibits of the product near 
the machines or in the department so that they may be readily 
accessible to the workmen, but so placed that they cannot be 
taken away, lost, or exchanged. Although certain classes of 
products may have a general quality standard, often each pro- 
duct of a class has a special quality of its own. This variation 
is due to different factors, such as the purpose for which the 
article is to be used, or the "fussiness" of the customer. 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 



245 




a 

nS 
u 
bo 

o 



24 6 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Where such a condition exists special quality standards 
should accompany the order to guide the employees properly 
in their work. These special quality standards should be pre- 
served upon completion of the work as they will serve as a 
record, in case of complaint by the customer upon receipt of 
goods, or in case the customer desires more goods of the same 
quality. 

The detailed instructions and the quality standards are not 
only essential to the employee but serve also another purpose, 
namely, as a guide to the instructor and to the inspector as 
well. Only in this way is it possible for all parties concerned 
to work together properly and to produce a satisfactory pro- 
duct economically. 

Summarization of Squaring Paper 

Perhaps the best way of showing how the data for squar- 
ing lithographed sheets of paper were summarized and simpli- 
fied is to take some of the actual operations and follow their 
development, step by step, from beginning to end. For the 
purposes of illustrating the standardization of these different 
operations twelve figures are used. These illustrations em- 
brace Figures 38 to 49 inclusive. 

Figure 38 is a photograph of the process of cutting. The 
knife used for the purpose is operated, at one end, by hand; 
at the other end it is held in place by a pivot. Although the 
work is simple, the operation demands care and accuracy. 
The employee has either to trim off an edge of the paper or 
else to split the sheet into several pieces. 

These sheets vary in size from 5 inches by 10 inches, to 
30 inches by 40 inches; the average size, however, is approx- 
imately 22 inches by 30 inches. The weight of the paper — or, 
as it is more commonly called, the weight of the stock — varies 
from 45 pounds for 500 sheets, 12 inches by 20 inches, to 
300 pounds for the same number of sheets 24 inches by 36 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 



247 



Time 9.1,0 to 9.50 Study No. or Symbol -4 File CUG 


Observer W.E. Stevens Dale Oct. 18, 1916 


Operation Hand Cutting Checked by E.P.S. 


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! 


■ 81, 


0.02 












d 


.29 


OOi 






OM 


OM 


O.OS 


O.OS 


0.07 


OOC 
















c 


.15 


0.06 




.90 


0.06 












y 


■ Si 


005 






0.02 


O.OS 


0.02 


o.ou 


0.07 


OM 












OM 




9 


.18 


0.03 


9 


.93 


O.OS 






















O.OS 


0.02 


OM 


O.OC 


O.OS 


o.os 
















c 


.25 


00? 




5.00 


007 






















0.02 


0.02 


0.02 


06 


O.OC 


O.OS 




OM 












9 


.28 


o.os 


a 


.04 


01, 






















O.OS 


O.OS 


O.OS 


0.0? 


005 


O.OC 
















c 


■35 


007 


t 


.11 


007 












g&c 


d 


y 


No 




O.OS 


O.OS 


0.02 


0.0? 


0.05 


0.05 






O.OS 






0.0? 




9 


.38 


OOS 


i 


.13 


3 02 












1.01 


OOi 


019 


12 




O.OS 


0103 


0.02 


0.06 


0.05 


0.05 
















c 


Ai 


0.06 




.18 


005 












1.07 


04 


005 


10 




O.OS 


O.OS 


0.02 


0.06 


O.OC 


O.OU 
















9 


.1,7 


0.05 


£ 


.20 


002 












1.05 


OOS 




12 




0.02 


0.03 


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007 


0.06 


0.09 
















c 


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0.06 




.24 


0.0!, 












0.9 s 


OOi 




11 




0.02 


0.02 


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0.0? 


O.OC 


0.10 


O.OS 






0.22 






007 


9 


.55 


0.02 


I 


.27 


O.OS 












1.02 


OOi 


006 


10 




0.02 


O.OS 


0.02 


O.OS 


0.07 


0.07 




OM 






007 






c 


.62 


0.07 




.35 


O.OS 












051 




007 


5 




0.0S 


0.01 


O.OS 


O.OS 


005 


0.12 
















9 


■6i 


0.02 


£ 


■37 


0.02 












l.OS 


005 


0.02 


11 




0.03 


0.02 


0.02 


0.11 


0.01 


0.07 
















c 


.71 


007 




A3 


ooc 












l.OS 


0.03 


OOi 


12 




0.02 
0.02 


O.OS 
0.02 




0.06 
0.09 


O.OS 
0.06 


















d 

i 


■7i 
.81 


O.OS 
0.07 




.46 
.52 


OOS 

ooc 












0.S0 


OM 


005 


9 
















0.02 


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0.02 


0.0? 


0.06 0.069 




t.OOS 






s.ooi 




V 


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001 










0O9S 


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O.Oi 


0.01 




0.07 


0.11 1 














9 


OS 


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on 






















0.03 


0.02 




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0.07 \0.04 














c 


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( 


.66 


002 






















0.02 


O.OS 




048 


0.07\ 














9 


.16 

.21 


O.OS 
0.05 




.73 
.76 


07 
O.OS 


g 






OVER 


ALL 








Av. 








& c Set sheet a 


id ci 


t 0091 


Detail Elements per sheet 
a 
b 


Time 








9 
9 


■21, 
.35 
■ 37 


O.OS 
0.11 
002 




.83 
.91 
6.00 


007 
O.OS 

009 




d Set she 
y Nepess 


■tsd 
iry 


uwn 
tela 


000S [ 
/s 0005 


















0.101 


(2) c Cut Sheets 0.063 






c 


AS 


0.06 




1 .02 


02 




















(3) d Set sheets down-per sheet 


1.003 






9 


.1,5 


0.02 




.09 


007 




















e 
f 










9 


.54 
.56 


09 
002 




1 .12 
• .20 


OOS 

O.OS 




















(1) a Reach for Sheets 


1.026 








e 


.63 


OS? 




1 .22 


0.02 




















h 
i 










9 
e 


.67 

:7i 


OM 
0.07 




• .29 
J .31 


007 
002 




















(4) i Jog Sheets 
k 
1 










9 
d 


.77 
.85 
.89 


O.OS 
O.OS 
OM 




: .38 
i .40 
1 A8 


0.07 
002 
OOS 




















m 








A 


IS 


J. 19 


I 


hone 


7 .50 


02 




















n 










9 


.21 


02 




o .54 


OM 































c 


.2'J 


OOS 




7 .56 


0.02 




















P 










9 


■S3 


OM 




.61 


005 




















q 

r 










9 


.39 
■ hi 


O.OC 
0.02 




7 .64 
s .70 


O.OS 
OOC 




















s 










c 


.4* 


0.07 




7 .72 


002 




















j t Count Sheet3 










9 


■ 50 


0.02 




.76 


OM 




















u 












.56 


O.OC 




J .80 


OM 




















V 










9 


.59 


OCs 




J .84 


OM 




















w 










c 


.66 


0.0? 




g .92 


OOS 




















X 










9 


.67 


01 




1 .94 


002 




















y Necessary Delays 


loos 






e 


.75 


O.OS 




702 


OOS 





















Figure 39. Time-Study Sheet Showing Elements Involved in Operation of Split- 
ting Lithographed Sheets 



248 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



Hj,S 



<u o a 



to *o 






00 o 
\6 on 



O hMn- 1 " w "" *" 



*0 *~ 00 
^h ^ tr> 



><5sa 






H 
W 

M 

H 

H 



<1 
H 

ft 



o 
o 

H 

H 
< 
i-l 
t3 

PQ 

H 



r" £ •= .S i> v 5 " ^ *" " — 



O H E T3 "S i-T <N > C-H« t ~" 



2 w--S 



o £ si? -a -.3 « « 



P>»H S C JJ Jig CN o~ 

2 h 6t3-§^^ 



w o 



>© ^ 
■* ^ 



06 en 



CO o 

Tf O 



-« etn^T^oo ^ -* -* 
an E c ,SoSo -*--.'• 



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^ Q 






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K S 








"10 






5 




m a 




JW 





s J! -J: ' 



1 oj a oj 13 

»I3£ U CD 1 



u, 5j Q-o'J m o 

CU *-y O r- O 1- 

I I I 



C J3 



WUg : w ; 

S -a t3 ; m : 

H « tn . " 

j-g t! : &-g 

' Qj "^ 3 to - 
P* c£ U <V u 

0_£$ aZ I 

MT3 >> 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 



249 



inches. The average weight, however, is 65 pounds for 500 
sheets, 22 inches by 30 inches. 

The elements, and their explanatory symbols, entering into 
the operation of squaring are : 

g. Reach for sheets 

c. Cut sheets 

d. Set down sheets 

j. Jog sheets that remain in hand 

j'. Jog sheets that have fallen to the right of the knife 

d'. Set down sheets after having completed operation j' 

y. Necessary lost time 

t. Count sheets 

Figure 39 which gives a detailed time study of the elements 
just enumerated, gives also other factors entering directly into 



HAND-CUTTING 



45 



35 



30 



25 



20 







Item g-Reach for Sheets, 

Time in Curve is net per 1,000 sheets 




















L 






for s 


tock 


32x2 


8-50 1 


o75l 


ound 


s 






















it- 


m 




















































*L 




*S 




































rL 


































*s 










L 






















H 




L 














L 




>ws r 


esult 


; obtj 






deta 


il tin 


e stu 


dies 


xL 






y L 


sS 




X-Shc 


lined jfrom 


*s 






"L 












S- Short side of sheet parallel to knife 
L-Long side of sheet parallel to knife 


















^.rea 


of C 


)neS 


Sheet in Square Inches 













50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1.000 1,050 

Figure 41. Graphic Chart Showing Amount of Time Necessary to Reach for 

a Sheet of Lithographed Paper 

the operation. These factors which are called variables (see 
Chapter XIII) are enumerated in the upper left-hand corner 
of the time-study sheet. They are : The weight of the stock; 
the size of the sheet; the length of the cut; and the clock 
number of the employee. This last item is used to determine 
the effect of the personal equation upon the operation. Further- 



250 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



more, the weight of the stock is also at times a variable; but 
in this particular operation it is a constant up to 75 pounds; 
any weight in excess of that amount would make it a variable. 

For the purposes of comparison the results of a number 
of time studies are tabulated in Figure 40. 

After tabulating these results it is possible to plot the aver- 
age time for each of the elements according to the variables 



HAND-CUTTING 



30 



20 



10 



Tim< 


in Cu 


rve is 


Item C 
net per 1,00 


-Cut 
Ishee 


Shee 
ts for 


ts 
stock 


22x28 


-50 to 


751b. 


























































*F 
































X 


" 




S 






XT 




XS 

"vS 








09 










S 

X 












XI 


xS 










3 
C 










X 


T 






















9) 






Xs 


*X 


























H 














































































X - Shows 1 
T - Narrow 


esults 
strip 


obtai 
trimn- 


led f r 
ed frc 


omde 
m she 


tail t i 
et 


ne stu 


dies 


















S- S 


leet s 


olitinl 


o 2se 


;tions 




























Lens 


jtho 


'Cut 


in In 


ihes 















2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 IS 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 

Figure 42. Graphic Chart Showing the Element of Cutting Lithographed 

Sheets 



which are : the size of the sheet and the length of the cut. 
Figure 41 represents item g, reach for the sheet; the variable 
in this case is the size of the sheet. Figure 42 represents item 
c, cut sheets; here the variable is the length of the cut in inches. 
Figure 43 represents item d, set down sheets; the variable is 
the size of the sheet. Figure 44 is item y, necessary lost time ; 
the variable is the size of the sheet. 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 



251 



It follows then, that all the elements in the operation which 
are plotted on the basis of the same variable together with the 
constants for these items can be collated, as in Figure 45. 



HAND-CUTTING 











































Itemd-S 


;tSh 


eets ] 


)own| 
































Time in Curve 
for Stock 22 x 2 


s Net per i,000 , 
8-50 to 75 Pounc 


Sheet 
Is 


i 






















































% Shows ;Results Obtained from 
Detail Time Studies 


m 

3 










X 
































a 
9 


X 


























JL- 








■ X 




a 










•* 







X 






































Are* 


l of I 


3hee 


1 
; in Squa 


re In 


ches 

















' 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 

Figure 43. Graphic Chart Showing the Element of Cutting Down Sheets 

After being collated, these elements may be reduced to one 
curve such as Figure 46. This curve represents a summariza- 



HAND-CUTTING 







Item y Necessary Lost Time | 
Time in Curve is net per 1,000 sheets 


























for s 


tock 


six a 


8-50 1 


o75l 


ound 


s 



















































j 


t 












§ 








































a 

0) 














x 


























c 




X 
















X- 


Sho\ 
deta 


vs re 
1 tim 


ults 
e stu 


obtai 
iies 


ned f 


rom 




























































i 


Vrea 


of £ 


heel 


in Squa 

L.- 1 


-e In 


ches 













100 200 300 400 600 600 700 800 900 1000 

Figure 44. Graphic Chart Showing Necessary Lost Time in Cutting 

Lithographed Sheets 

tion of the time taken to cut 1,000 sheets of paper 22 inches 
by 28 inches, from stock varying from 50 to 75 pounds for a 
ream of 500 sheets. 



252 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



g 

H 
H 
P 

u 

Q 



o 


1 


o 


a 


o in 


I 


■* 


o 


N « U) lO 




M 


1 w 


1 ° 




O r^ o m 


N 


in 


O <M in m 






in 


<o 


o 


O vo O m 


H 


o 








"tf 


>o 




O in O in 


o 


in 






00 


■* 






O ■* O lO 


Oi 


o 




o 




t 


m 




O ro 0\ in 


t^ 






■tf 


*"" 


1 * 


W 


o 


O 01 00 io 


■o 


o 


o m ^ in 




'" 


•*? 


in 


o 


Ifi M t- XT) 


! oo 




co n tj- \n 


6 




co 


in 




O O <} m 


H 


o 




a 


>o 


ro 


tT 


o 


o a m m 


Oi 




IO "-< Tf IO 


VO 


m 


<T> 


■tf 




O 00 ro m 


>o 


o 


ro m -^j- in 




in 


ro 


■* 


O 


io oo h in 

M H Tj- IO 


q. 




ro 


*t 




O IN Oi W3 


M 


o 






■* 




^ 




O c*- r- in 


Ol 




C\ H ro m 


o> 


rO 


01 


to 




O N IO Ifl 


i^ 


O 


co h ro in 


co 


in 


N 


rO 




o t^ oi m 


■* 




co h ro in 


CO 




O N 0\ "5 


H 


o 


co m oi in 


CO 


o 


O r- o m 


00 








M 


N 


ro 




O n fo "i 


m 


o 


CO H n m 


ro 






CM 








m 




rn 
















0) 






















j 

"■T3 




















o 








1 






d 












< 


a 

0) 


a) 

o 




hH 













fin 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 



253 



Figure 42 is the only chart which has the length of cut 
in inches as its variable. Hence Figure 42 and Figure 46 con- 
tain all the information that is necessary to set rates on hand- 
cutting stock of the size and weight mentioned in the preceding 
paragraph. 

From these two charts, accordingly, a table of standard 
times (Figure 47), was drawn up for the rate-setter. In 
drawing up this table an allowance of 10 per cent was deter- 
mined as the time necessary to allow for the necessities of life 
and for fatigue. 





















HAND-CUTTING 
















90 






Sum 


nary 


of It 


ems g- Reach for Sh|eet: 
&- Sei Sheets Down 
































^/-Necessary Lc 
j- Jog Sheets 


st Time 




















80 


TO 

O 










(- Count S 
j'd- Jog and 


heets 
Set] 


iown 




















'<0 
60 
50 
40 
30 


c 




Time 


inC 


urve 


s net 


per 


,000 


sheet 


3 for 


stock 


22x 


^8-50 


to 75 


poun 


ds 










a 




















































































__ 














































Ar 


ja oJ 


She 


et in 


Squ 


are 


inch 


:a 















100 200 300 400 600 600 700 800 900 1000 

Figure 46. Summarization of All the Elements Having Uniform Basis by 

Area of Sheet 



The instructions, which made clear to the rate-setter the 
way in which to use the chart of standard times, were given in 
the form of an example, Figure 48. The instructions include 
the method of figuring the time necessary to do a typical job. 
From the tabulation sheets on which the detail times taken 
from the time studies were recorded, sample sheet shown in 
Figure 40, it was also possible to determine the different per- 
centages of time which had to be allowed in handling weights 
of stock that weighed more than seventy-five pounds 
to the ream. These percentages are shown in table 
Figure 49. 



254 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Standard Times 



Average Net Time Plus Allowances 



Items g + d + y + j + t + j' + d' 


Item C 


Area of Sheet 


Time per 1000 Sheets 


Length of Cut 


Time per 1000 Cuts 


in Sq. Inches 


in Minutes 


Inches 


in Minutes 


50 


41.0 


3 


22.0 


100 


41-3 


3 


29.8 


150 


4i-5 


4 


37-4 


200 


41.9 


5 


45-o 


250 


42.2 


6 


53-0 


300 


42.5 


7 


58.4 


350 


43-9 


8 


64.0 


400 


45-2 


9 


69-5 


450 


47.1 


10 


73-8 


500 


49.0 


11 


77.0 


550 


5i-5 


12 


79-4 


600 


54-o 


13 


81.5 


650 


56.0 


14 


82.5 


700 


57-7 


15 


837 


750 


60.2 


16 


84.8 


800 


62.5 


17 


85.8 


850 


65.0 


18 


87.0 


900 


67.2 


19 


88.1 


950 


69-5 


20 


88.6 


1,000 


72.0 


21 


89.2 


1,050 


74.2 


22 


90.2 


1,100 


76.4 


23 


90.9 


1,150 


78.6 


24 


91-5 


1,200 


80.8 


25 


92.0 


1,250 


83.0 


26 


92.5 


1,300 


85.2 


27 


93 .0 


i,350 


87.4 


28 


93-5 


1,400 


89.6 


29 


94.0 


1,450 


91.8 


30 


94-5 


1,500 


94.0 


3i 


95-0 


1,550 


96.2 


32 


95-5 


1,600 


98.4 


33 


96.0 


1,650 


100.6 


34 


96.5 


1,700 


102.8 


35 


97.0 


1,750 


105.0 


36 


97-5 



Figure 47. Table of Standard Times Taken from Figures 42 and 46 to Be 
Used by the Rate-Setter 

(a) Above time is for 22 x 28 in 50 pounds to 75 pounds stock 

(b) Base rate is 20^ per hour 

(c) Bonus time is 35% of task time 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 



255 



+ 



TO 


+ 


3 


X 


O 


+ 




13 





+ 


-*-< 


bO 



+ 



+ 
+ 
+ 

bo 



a, 



3 
o 

00 

CM 



a w 



fe 



T3 

TO 

w 



.s -3 
u 55 



a 
to 



.s 4 

U C/3 



a - 



peS 



,£h 


1 






^ 




00 

(M 








.a 


TO 







10 


-a 


CM 




10 


1—1 


rt 


CM 




■"* 


^_, 




M 







=3 


cn 


CJ 

O 




j3 


CJ 


bC 

.a 


en 


I— 1 


en 


"o 









O 

TO 


-*— 1 
to 

O 


U-i 


.SP 


H 


<: 


tl 





'<D 


& 






*d 
<-> 


^ 










Oh 

e 

to" 
W 



I-l 







<M 


O 

_£_ 












_i.__ 



o 

U 



tn .jh 



< J 



TO 



.. .. «8 

"H <M i-H 



O O 

u u 



S r 



pt, 



256 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



Summarization of Laying Cloth 

In the summarization of laying cloth (see Chapter X 
Figure 22) some of the data that appeared in squaring litho- 
graphed sheets of paper is not used. For instance, the time- 
study sheet is omitted. 

The operation is also quite different from the one previously 
discussed, for it is accomplished by two people, here called 



Hand-Cutting 

Additional Time Allowance for Stock Heavier than 
22 x 28 — 50 Pounds to 75 Pounds 

Stock 22 x 28 — 75 pounds to 100 pounds add 5% to Standard Time 



(< 


a tt 


IOO " 


" 175 " 


tt 


IO% " " 


a 


tt it 


175 " 


it „__ n 
200 


a 


12% " " 


4 Ply Stock 22 


x 28—188 


pounds 


tt 


12% " " 


5 " 


it it 


" 212 


" 


a 


19% " " 


6 " 


it it 


"-254 


it 


tt 


26% " " 


8 " 


tt it 


"—312 


ti 


tt 


33% " " 


10 " 


a it 


"-360 


u 


tt 


40% " 



Figure 49. Showing Tabulation of Additional Time Allowance for Stock 
Heavier than 75 Pounds 

A and B. Figure 50 shows that at times the two men work 
independently and at times in unison. To illustrate, man A 
performs two of the "starting elements" alone, while man B 
performs three. After that they perform a number of elements 
together. They then separate, man A taking care of some 
elements and man B taking care of others. In completing the 
final elements they work together. Figure 50 is arranged in 
columns so that the differentiation of the workmen's duties 
is clear. 

The same figure also shows the unit times for the constant 
elements of the operation. (For the method of determining 
constant elements see Chapter XIII.) There are four items, 
however, against which no figures appear, and these are 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 



257 



Man A 



Obtain route slip. . 
Examine route slip . 



Starting Elements (Per Lay) 



ManB 



Time In 
Decimals 
of Hours 

0.013 
0.004 



Move tools, sketches, etc. 

Clean table 

Remove ticket, first piece . 



Lay first layer (included in laying elements) 

Obtain sketch 

Unroll sketch 

Adjust sketch — first time 

Mark first end 

Mark table 

Obtain shears 

Cut first end 

Walk to 2nd end (allowance) 

Mark 2nd end 

Mark table 

Obtain shears 

Cut 2nd end 

Roll up and remove sketch 



Time In 
Decimals 
of Hours 

0.009 
0.007 

O.OOI 



0.002 
0.003 
0.006 
0.003 
0.001 
0.001 

O.OOI 
O.OOI 
0.002 
0.001 
O.OOI 
O.OOI 

0.006 



Laying Elements (Per Layer) 
Pull cloth (variable) 



Straighten 1st section 

Straighten and even feet. 

Walk feet 

Obtain shears 

Cut 



O.OOI 
O.OOI 



Cloth Elements (Per Piece) 



Roll up cloth . . . 
Mark route slip. 
Obtain cloth. . . 

Heave pole 

Feel nap 



0.003 
0.002 
0.004 
0.001 
0.001 



Roll up cloth 

Tie ticket 

Remove cloth. . . . 
Help obtain cloth . 

Heave pole 

Remove ticket 



Finishing Elements (Per Lay) 



Roll up cloth . . . 
Mark route slip . 
Add entire lay . . 



0.003 
0.002 

0.004 



Roll up cloth . 
Tie ticket . . . . 
Obtain sketch , 



0.003 
0.002 
0.001 
0.003 

O.OOI 
O.OOI 



0.003 

0.002 

0.004 



Unroll sketch 

Adjust sketch 2nd time . 

Obtain pins 

Scatter pins 



0.003 
0.009 
0.003 
0.002 



, Pins pins at per pin (variable) 

Remove excess pins 0.002 

Figure 50. Combination Instruction Card and Computation Sheet of 
Operations Used in Laying Cloth 



258 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

the variables, viz., pulling cloth, straightening first section, 
straightening and evening, and walking. These variables were 
more difficult to summarize briefly (see Chapter XII). For 
example, one of the variables in this operation was the nature 
— or texture — of the cloth. On all figures this changing factor 
is represented by the symbols G, H, J, and K, which were 
arbitrarily chosen to represent different textures. 

The operation of laying cloth, as described on the instruc- 
tion card furnished to the workmen is as follows : 

1. Man A should pull the cloth with little or no gathering, 
while man B should guide it at the starting point and start to 
walk. 

2. Man A should remove the weight, while man B finishes 
walking. 

3. Both men should lay the end of the cloth and place the 
weight, then they should straighten the required number of 
lengths. 

4. They should then work toward the weight until they 
reach the furthest place which must be evened or straightened, 
without going far enough to remove the weight. 

5. From this point they even and walk back to the starting 
point and cut the cloth. 

Note. In case the cloth is very soft and loose, the men 
should alternate the straightenings and the evenings until they 
reach the starting end of the lay, and then should cut the cloth. 
This note, at the conclusion of the instruction card, shows 
the possible effect of the variable previously described. 

Figure 51 represents the operation of pulling cloth. The 
time necessary to pull all textures of cloth a given number of 
feet was identical, hence one curve was sufficient to express 
the operation. 

Another variable, as previously noted, was the nature, or 
texture, of the cloth. We have seen that the time taken in the 
pulling of cloth, whatever its texture, was the same, but the 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 259 

time required for straightening and evening the first section 
varied with the consistency of the fabric. It is, however, im- 



0.15 


















































































,. 


--* 




0.14 


















































„*»*"'"■' 








0.13 


















^ 


*^' 






































0.12 

0.11 


m 

<D 




























3 




























a 




























0.10 
0.09 


B 




























H 












































Pull Cloth 










0.08 


























































1.07 






































































I 


ength 


in Fe. 


et 













"■™ 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 

Figure 51. Graphic Chart Showing Time Necessary to Pull a Given Number 

of Feet of Cloth 

possible to make a graphic chart of the nature of the cloth, 
hence the times taken to perform this operation are taken from 
a tabulation sheet not included here as in Figure 52. 

Straighten First Section of Cloth 
Class of Cloth 

H J 



Time in Minutes. 



0.176 



0.164 



0.151 



Figure 52. Showing Times Taken to Straighten Section of Cloth 

In Figure 53 the time required for straightening and even- 
ing all textures of cloth is shown. The lines in this chart are 



260 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



broken so that there shall be no confusion in the mind of the 
workman as to the number of times any texture of cloth shall 




10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 SO 
Figure 53. Graphic Chart Showing Operation of Straightening and Evening 

Cloth 

be straightened and evened. For example, K texture may be 
straightened and evened once when laying from 7 to 13 feet; 
the same texture may be straightened and evened twice when 
laying from 13 to 19 feet, and so forth. The dot and dash 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 261 

line is used here, as in Figure 51, to show the extra time re- 
quired to perform the operation because of posts or floor col- 



0.14 
0.13 

0.12 

0.11 
0.10 

0.09 
0.08 
0.07 
0.06 
0.05 
0.04 

0,03 8~ 10 12 14 W 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 

Figure 54. Graphic Chart Showing Time Taken to Walk in Operation of 

Laying Cloth 

umns by which some of the tables ran, and around which the 
workmen were compelled to walk. 

Figure 54 represents the operation of walking. In this 
case the texture of the cloth had no influence upon the opera- 
tion, hence one curve was sufficient to express it. 

In the summation of the constants and the curves which 
appear in Figure 55, the readings are transposed into decimals 
of hours to make them correspond to the decimal divisions 
which appear on the dials of the clock in the shop. 

After the summation has been made, instructions are drawn 
up so that the various delays that occur in an operation may 



















































































































0) 

3 




























a 




























0) 

S 

H 


































































































Stand 


Wall 
ardTin 


ring 

le in M 


nutes 


















L 


sngth 


in Feet 













262 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Summation of Laying Operations 



Classes of Cloth by Length of Lay in Feft 

8 i 10 i 12 i 14 i 16 i 18 i 20 i 22 i 24 i 26 i 28 i 30 



Pull 

Straight 1st sec . . 
Straight, & even. 

Walk 

Obtain shears 

Cut 

Remove pole all . , 



Total . 
Hours . . 









G Class 














.066 


.078 


.087 


.094 


.100 


.ios 


.109 


.113 


■ 133 


■ 137 


.140 


.188 


.188 


.188 


.188 


.188 


.188 


.188 


.188 


.188 


.188 


.188 


.263 


-345 


•364 


.383 


•493 


.5 18 


• 542 


.620 


• 70S 


• 732 


.841 


•037 


• 045 


.052 


.060 


.067 


•075 


.083 


.090 


.098 


.IOS 


.113 


•039 


• 039 


•039 


•039 


•039 


■039 


• 039 


.039 


.039 


.039 


.039 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 






















■ 145 


.667 


.769 


.804 


.838 


.961 


■999 


1035 


1. 124 


1.237 


1-275 


1-540 




.0128 


.0134 


.0140 


.0160 


.0167 


• 0173 


.0187 


.0206 


.0213 


• 0257 





.144 
.188 

.875 

.120 
-039 
.074 
•145 

1-585 
O264 



H Class 



Pull 

Straight, 1st sec. . 
Straight, & even . 

Walk 

Obtain shears. . . . 

Cut 

Remove pole all. . 



Total . 
Hours . . 



.066 
.176 

-255 

• 037 

• 039 

.074 



.647 
0108 



.078 


.087 


.176 


.176 


.270 


• 353 


.045 


.052 


.039 


• 039 


.074 


.074 


.682 


.781 


0114 


• 0130 



.094 
.176 
•370 

.060 
■039 

•074 



.813 

0136 



.100 

.176 

.389 

.067 
■030 

.074 



•845 

0141 



.105 

.176 
.500 
.075 
.039 
.074 



.969 

0162 



.109 
.176 

•525 
.083 
•039 
•074 



1.006 
.0168 



.113 

.176 

.548 

.090 
•039 
.074 



1.040 

•0173 



• 133 

.176 

.684 
.098 
•039 

•074 



1.204 

.0201 



• 137 
.176 
.712 
.105 
•039 
.074 



1.243 
.0207 



.140 
.176 
.740 
.113 
•039 
.074 
•145 



1.427 
.0238 



J Class 



Pull 

Straight, 1st sec. . . . 
Straight, & even 

Walk 

Obtain Shears 

Cut 

Remove pole ail 



Total . 
Hours . . 



.066 


.078 


.087 


.094 


.100 


.105 


.109 


.113 


.133 


■ 137 


.140 


.164 


.164 


.164 


.164 


.164 


.164 


.164 


.164 


.164 


.164 


.164 


•234 


.246 


.320 


.337 


•352 


•454 


•475 


.496 


.560 


.640 


.666 


.037 


•045 


.052 


.060 


.067 


• 075 


.083 


.090 


.098 


.105 


•113 


■039 


.039 


•039 


•039 


•039 


• 039 


• 039 


• 039 


• 039 


• 039 


• 039 


•074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


•074 


• 074 


.074 


• 074 


.074 


.074 


.074 
• 145 


.614 


.646 


•736 


.768 


.796 


.911 


•944 


.976 


1.074 


1159 


1-341 




.0108 


.0123 


.0128 


•0133 


.0152 


•0157 


.0163 


■ 0179 


• 0193 


.0224 





.144 

.164 
.690 

.120 
•039 
.074 
• 145 

1.376 

0229 



Pull 

Straight, 1st sec. . 
Straight, & even . . 

Walk 

Obtain shears. . . . 

Cut 

Remove pole all . . 



Total , 

Hours . . 









K Class 














.066 


.078 


.087 


.094 


.100 


.105 


.109 


.113 


• 133 


• 137 


.140 


.151 


.151 


.151 


.151 


.151 


.151 


.151 


.151 


.151 


.151 


.151 


.203 


■ 213 


.220 


.290 


.305 


.319 


.400 


.417 


■475 


■ 495 


.560 


•037 


•045 


.052 


.060 


.067 


•07s 


.083 


.090 


.098 


.105 


• 113 


•039 


.039 


•039 


.039 


•039 


•039 


•039 


•039 


• 039 


• 039 


•039 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 


.074 
• 145 


•570 


.600 


.623 


.708 


.736 


• 763 


.856 


.884 


.970 


1. 001 


1.222 




.0100 


.0104 


.0118 


.0123 


.0127 


• 0143 


.0147 


.0161 


.0167 


.0204 





Figure 55. Chart Showing Summation of Laying Cloth including Constants 

and Variables 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 263 

be systematically cared for. In this case they were arranged 
as follows : 

Method of Handling Delays and Damages 

I. Delays 

1. Time for short unavoidable delays will be included in the 

Standard time. Such delays are as follows : — Pole falls, 
rip selvage, try sketch for narrow cloth, etc. 

2. Extra time will be allowed for long unavoidable delays in 

the following cases : 

(a) Change to new piece of cloth . . .06 hours 

(b) Splice piece . . . . . .11 " 

(c) Shift and relay layer . . . .03 " 

(d) For each damage marked . .02 " 
The foreman will indicate the nature of each of these 
delays on the time ticket, but the time will be figured 
afterwards by the rate-setter. 

3. Time taken waiting for foreman, getting his decision, 

waiting for cloth, etc., will be allowed by foreman 
according to each individual case. 

4. The men will not be allowed to make any change involv- 

ing the use of more cloth or a piece not specified on the 
route slip without obtaining the foreman's permission. 

II. Damages 

1. A layer must mark any serious damage which could injure 

the garment in some part no matter whether it falls in 
such a part or not. If any class of damage is marked by 
the sponger which could be passed in all parts of the 
garment, the inspector is to notify the superintendent 
who will order the sponger to cease marking such class 
of damages. 

2. Serious damages must be completely marked when they are 

discovered, as follows : The location and piece number 
of the damage must first be written on the paper marker, 
and then a tape must be placed from the damage to the 
edge of the lay. 

3. If a serious damage falls in. a part of Z/% or more yards 

which would have to be recut, and the layer cannot im- 



264 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

prove its position by shifting or turning cloth, he must 
get foreman's O K on that part of the paper marker 
where the damage is indicated. 
4. When inspector O K's lay he will count the damages which 
appear on the marker and those avoided by shifting them 
outside of the lay and enter the total on the time ticket. 

Formula Method for Calculating Standard Times 

It is usually practicable to put the final data into compara- 
tively simple form and tabulate it so the time any job should 
take may be figured regularly even by a rate-setter who may 
not be versed in the technique of the business. In operations, 
however, which have a great many variables it is not always 
practicable to develop the final data into this simplified form. 
In this case a formula can be developed for figuring the stand- 
ard time corresponding to various conditions by substituting 
actual time values as determined by job standardization for the 
terms in the formula. The formula method has been developed 
and used for outside constructive work where conditions vary 
appreciably. 

An example of this kind is the laying of brick in a wall. 
In an ordinary wall the analysis is not difficult, but even here 
a formula such as is cited below is convenient to use because of 
the variation of time due to the position and frequency of 
openings for windows and doors. In complicated work, such 
as in the laying of brick veneer or facing for structural steel 
columns, the problem is much more involved because each 
size, type, and shape of column must have a different arrange- 
ment of bricks. 

Even in an ordinary wall each layer of brick must be laid 
so that the vertical joints in one course or layer do not come 
directly over the joints of the course below, and, correspond- 
ingly, the vertical joints of every eighth course or row in this 
face brick must be tied in with the backing brick immediately 
behind it so as to make the brick-work a solid unit. 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 205 

For laying brick to line in an ordinary wall the formula 
will be : 

\M T C T T C T 8 / 



In this formula the various letters have the following 
meaning : 

N = total number of bricks laid to line; J = time chang- 
ing jobs; M — number of brick in the section of wall; L = 
time stretching line; C = number of brick in the course ; S = 
time laying one stretcher to line; T = time jointing; H 
= time laying one header to line ; and F = time laying one 
filling brick. 

The above operation expressed in words means that the 
total time of laying a course of stretchers to line consists of 
the sum of the time lost changing jobs, time stretching line, 
the time actually laying the brick, the time jointing and the 
extra time laying the header bricks every eighth course. In the 
latter term we find 2 headers (2H) replacing a stretcher, S, 
and a filler, F, and as these header corners are assumed to 
occur every eighth course the time is divided by 8. 

It will be seen how readily changes can be made to provide 
for differences in design of wall. For example, if the header 
course occurs once in 6 courses instead of 8, the figure 6 can 
be substituted for 8. If a different type of header course is 
used, the change also can be readily made. Similarly the 
formula can be extended to include the backing brick and the 
fillers for any type of wall. Formulas can be worked up to 
apply to other classes of brick work such as veneer for 
pilasters, projecting courses, mouldings, flat and circular 
arches, cornices, and so forth. 

Where the bricks are to serve as a veneer for a structural 
steel column, moreover, it is necessary to figure how many 



266 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



corner bricks are to be laid, since they are the hardest to lay; 
then how many bricks are to be cut and in what way, and how 
to use up the "bats" or small pieces of brick which are cut 
off. Thus for a particular pilaster enclosing a steel column 
the formula for the face brick per course would be as follows : 

5r7+2C+iKNf + R + H'^ + 2C / ^ + 3 V + 4 T 
M ooo 

The time values corresponding to the letters in the formula 
can be taken from a tabulation worked up from time-study 
data similar to that shown in the following table : 



LINE 



Changing jobs 

Stretching line 

Jointing . 

Brushing 

Stretcher laid to line 

Stretcher to complete course . 

Stretcher cut to complete course 

Stretcher cut special 

Header laid to line . 

Header cut .... 

LEADS 

Stretcher near corner 
Stretcher cut near corner 
Header near corner 
Header near corner cut 
Brick at corner 
Brick cut at corner 
Leveling .... 

Plumbing .... 



FACE 


BACKING 


SELECTED 


BRICK 


Time per 


Time per 


Brick 


Brick 


. * 0.03 


0.03 


0.05 


0.04 


0.14 


0.06 


0.01 


0.01 


0.40 


0.27 


0.69 


0.47 


1. 12 


0.65 


1.71 


0.97 


0.31 


0.24 


0.39 


0.00 


0.54 


0-37 


0.19 


0.85 


0-39 


0-34 


0-93 


0.69 


1.77 


1-45 


0.05 


0.00 


0.24 


0.1 1 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 267 



FACE 


BACKING 


SELECTED 


BRICK 


Time per 


Time per 


Brick 


Brick 


0.75 


0-33 


1.05 


0-45 


0.38 


0.1 1 


0.54 


0-37 


0.70 


0.47 



JAMBS 



Brick at jambs to line 

Brick cut at jamb for bond 

Plumbing jamb 

Laying return 

Laying cut brick on return 



The formula method of figuring the standard times for the 
various combinations of elements is not so complicated as it 
looks on the surface and has proved satisfactory in many cases. 
It allows for recombining the elements in every possible way, 
as it is necessary to do on construction work. Where it is 
not necessary to make a new recombination of elements for 
practically every job, however, the simpler the form in which 
the standard times are expressed the better. 

Availability of Data 

The data, from which the final summaries are drawn, are 
gathered together at considerable expense of time and effort. 
They should be kept preferably in a folder with all of the 
information pertaining to the operation, so that it will be 
accessible whenever needed. This information may be of use 
in: (1) Furnishing information to the planning department; 
(2) furnishing estimates to the sales division as to the cost 
of new work; (3) altering the standard times of the operation 
because of some marked change in the machinery, equipment, 
or methods; (4) determining standards on some other opera- 
tion, which in some cases may be entirely new. 

By making this information available the planning depart- 
ment knows the time it will take to perform each operation. 
It can, accordingly, arrange the work so as to get, as nearly 
as possible, the maximum of production from the plant. With 



2 68 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

standards the work can be intelligently directed — a condition 
which is impossible where crude estimates alone are avaliable. 

The estimates furnished to the sales division will, because 
they are carefully organized, eliminate the necessity of adding 
an extra percentage of time in order to cover all unforeseen 
delays in production. Standards also make possible an accur- 
ate predetermination of the maximum output of every depart- 
ment, so that the sales division can be given a definite date of 
shipment for every order that is received. Another advantage 
is that the planning department, when controlling definite in- 
formation, can notify the sales division some months in 
advance as to the kind of work the factory could use in order 
to keep all the machines busy for the greatest amount of time. 
Both of these factors are valuable to any company. By ful- 
filling promises that have been given to customers the company 
builds up a satisfied clientele. The company will also know well 
in advance all the needs of the factory, and as a result of this 
foreknowledge the costs of production will inevitably be less. 

The third point, viz., altering the standard times, usually 
results from the introduction of new machinery or new 
methods. By keeping all of the original standardization data 
properly filed and indexed, it is possible to use this informa- 
tion in figuring out the new standards. In some cases it may 
be necessary to make but a short study on the time of the 
elements originally taken. Such a precaution materially 
reduces the amount of time of studying new standards. 

Occasionally in determining standards on another, perhaps 
a new, operation, the elements are identical with those which 
have been standardized and are in use. When instituting new 
standards it is not necessary to study the operation for a new 
standard. In making the original studies, the time taken by 
each element was found and the standard time for this element 
was set. Many elements appearing in one operation will be 
found to appear in other operations, although in different 



SUMMARIZING STANDARDS AND INSTRUCTIONS 269 

sequence, or, perhaps, supplemented by other elements. It is, 
therefore, possible to take the standard time values of the 
elements that have previously been determined and add to them 
the allowances which are necessary for the new operation. 
In this way it is possible to reduce the number of time studies 
and analysis, as well as the amount of computing, that appear 
necessary in establishing new standards. 

The detail time studies, the standards that have been set, 
the reasons for setting the standards, the tabulations, the 
curves, the instructions, and the final summaries should be 
grouped for each operation. All information about each opera- 
tion should be kept in a separate folder and indexed. By fol- 
lowing this method, the information will at all times be avail- 
able and any duplication of work will be unnecessary. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS 

There are two groups upon the efforts of whom the suc- 
cess of the standards depends — the management and the 
employees. But as both are materially affected by the stand- 
ards, neither should be expected to accede to any innovation 
unless facts that command their confidence are presented to 
substantiate the claims of the analyst. An application of the 
conclusions must, therefore, be preceded by a thorough ex- 
planation of the principles and the standards. 

The executive is chiefly concerned with the relative costs 
under the existent and under the proposed plan. He expects 
to have definite facts presented to him so that he may know 
how much production to expect, how large a wage he must 
pay employees and what the unit costs will be. 

The employee, with good reason, is suspicious of changes 
affecting his job unless he is sure exactly what they mean. 
He wants to know what the standards consist of and how they 
were determined. Most especially he wants to know how they 
are going to affect his earnings. If the method of payment 
adopted is time work with bonus, which is something new to 
him, he naturally wants to know just "how it works" so that 
he can figure his pay for himself and understand each week 
any variation in its amount. 

Explaining Standards to Employers 

The three points the executive is interested in are : 

1. Increase in production 

2. Increase in wages 

3. Decrease in cost 

270 



EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS 271 

The explanation given him should therefore treat these 
points fully. The increase in production and increase in wages 
should be shown in percentages, because their proportionate 
increase is the objective sought. As regards decrease in cost, 
however, dollars and cents are what count. The executive is 
not particularly interested in a saving of $50 a year, but he is 
very much concerned if a saving of $50,000 a year is made. 

An important point to bear in mind is that all such esti- 
mates of relative costs must be based on actual records. The 
necessity of getting exact data from which a comparison of 
the previous and estimated costs can be made has been taken 
up fully in Chapter XVI. In drawing the comparison, the 
figures should not only be taken from company records when 
possible, but they should be chosen and examined carefully 
to make sure they are applicable. There is danger of using 
figures which cover so long a period of time that the con- 
ditions are not identical with those used to show estimated 
production, or of using the wrong basis of comparison — taking 
pounds when yards or some other unit of measure should have 
been taken. Attempts to compare things which are not com- 
parable result in confusion and misunderstanding. 

In fact the sources from which figures are obtained have 
such a vital effect on the accuracy of the actual result that an 
explanation of how the figures were obtained should be stated 
first in the report on estimated savings. This should be 
followed by a statement regarding the way in which the figures 
thus obtained were worked up. The best way of describing 
this method of figuring the saving is to take an estimate and 
discuss it in detail step by step. The estimate here chosen is 
one pertaining to the operation of weaving wire cloth. In 
this case the actual times were drawn off from the company 
production records covering two weeks in March and two 
weeks in November. A list of the figures is given, according 
to the variables of each order. 



272 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

March 16-18 



Loom 










Actual 


Standard 


Number 




Cloth 




Length 


Times 


Times 


21 


H" 


'#20^ 


24 


2,100 


14. 1 hrs. 


12.5 hrs. 


it 




u 


36 


3,674 


3i-3 


25-5 


a 




a 


48 


75° 


8.6 


5-7 


23 


1" 


#20 


68 


24,600 


i53-o 


118.5 


13 & 18 


2" 


#19 


72 


27,000 


96.0 


5i-7 


(< 




" 


96 


50,250 


145-5 


102.5 


27 & 28 


2" 


#20 


84 


36,150 


109.0 


70.5 


11 




u 


96 


i7,55o 


55-o 


35-3 


17, 19, 25 


2" 


#2 y 2 


60 


2,400 


6-5 


4.4 


11 




a 


84 


3,3oo 


7-5 


6-5 


a 




a 


96* 


76,050 


290.0 


159-7 



243,824 916.5 



November 18-30 



592.8 



Loom 








Actual 


Standard 


Number 




Cloth 


Length 


Times 


Times 


22 


3/' 
74 


' #20^ 39^ 


656 


7.6 


4-7 


a 




40 


2,460 


23-3 


17.6 


23 


1" 


#20 66 


14,250 


93-3 


66.7 


17-l8, 19 


2" 


#19 72 


90,900 


205.8 


173.6 


i( 




78 


i4,55o 


31.6 


28.4 


26 


2" 


#i9>^ 72 


38,700 


97-3 


74.2 


17-25 


2" 


#20 72 


31,500 


78.6 


59-5 


a 




84 


12,150 


37-6 


23-7 


13 


2" 


#2oK 36 


1,500 


2.9 


2.6 


it 




72 


22,950 


82.9 
660.9 


43-4 




229,616 


494.4 


Total 


1577-4 


1087.2 



* ist symbol, space between wires. 2nd symbol, gage in width of wire. 3rd symbol, 
width of cloth. Ex. J " space between wire; 20$ " gage wire; 24 feet width of cloth. 

The percentage of increase in production is found by sub- 
tracting the standard time from the actual time and multiply- 



EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS 



273 



ing this remainder by one hundred — then dividing that result 
by the standard time. 

Expressed in a formula this reads : 

Actual Time — Standard Time 

Increase in Production = — - — : X I0 ° 

Standard Time 

In the case of the weaving operation the formula is trans- 
lated into the actual figures as follows : 

1577.4 — 1087.2 490.2 

Increase in Production = X 100 = — - — = ac.% 

1087.2 ^ 1087.2 HD 

The increase in production then was 45 per cent. 



Increase in Wages 

After a careful consideration of all the factors involved, 
the analyst works out the increase in wages, which in his 
opinion the employee should receive, and uses this figure in 
making his calculations. 

It will be noted that in the calculations the assumption is 
made throughout that the employee will earn his bonus only 
85 per cent of the time, because minor delays often occur which 
necessitate day work. If this figure is used, there is no danger 
of causing trouble by overestimating the employees' earnings. 
There is never any complaint when an employee earns more 
than the amount stated, but hard feelings and ill will are in- 
evitable if the earnings are less than anticipated. It is safe 
to assume, however, that production will be increased to the 
full amount as shown by the figures, even though the average 
employee earns the bonus only 85 per cent of the time. This 
is not only because the skilled employees will often do the 
work in less than the standard time, but also because even when 
an employee fails to do the work within the standard time, he 
will usually fall only slightly below the mark. 



274 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

In the case of the operation of weaving wire cloth, to return 
to the specific illustration, the wages original and proposed 
were : 

Original Wages $ -33 an hour 

Proposed Wages 

(assuming that 

standard is 

earned 85% of 

the time) $ 426 an hour 

The percentage of increase in wages is found by dividing 
the difference between the proposed wages and the original 
wages multiplied by one hundred by the original wages. Ex- 
pressed in a formula, this reads : 

Proposed Wages— Original Wages ' 

Increase in Wages = ^ . . — — — X I0 o 

Original Wages 

In the case of the weaving operation, the formula is translated 
into actual figures as follows : 

0.426 — .33 0.096 

Increase in Wages = - X : oo = X 100 = 29% 

0-33 0.33 

The increase in wages was, then, 29 per cent. 



Decrease in Cost 

The decrease in cost is most important in the mind of the 
executive. This is shown in dollars and cents saved per year. 
The total cost is the sum of the wages of the operation and the 
machine overhead. The saving in machine overhead is often 
a large part of the decrease in cost, so that sometimes, although 
the labor cost is greater, the total cost is less. 

The total of the machine overhead plus the wages should 
be shown for the original and the proposed plans. 

The cost for the weaving operation were : 



EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS • 275 

Costs per Hour 

Original Plan Proposed Plan 

Overhead $0.99 $0.99 

Labor $0.33 $0,426 

$1.32 $1,416 

The saving per hour under the proposed plan is equal to 
the original cost multiplied by one plus the increase in pro- 
duction minus the proposed cost. Expressed in a formula this 
reads : 

Saving per hour = Original Cost X ( x -f" Increased 
Production) — Proposed Cost 

In the case of the weaving operation where the increase in 
production was 45 per cent, the formula is translated into 
actual figures as follows : 

Saving per hour = (1.32 X M5) — I -4 I 6 = 1.914 — 1.416 = $0,498 

It may be assumed in round numbers that in a year, with 
a 48-hour week, there are, exclusive of holidays and Sundays, 
approximately 2,400 hours. The saving per loom per year 
Would then be $1,195.00. There were thirty-four looms used 
on the operation, so that the total saving on this operation from 
job standardization would amount to $40,630.68. 

Summary of Estimate of Savings 

Increase in production 45% 

Increase in wages 29% 

Decrease in cost per year $40,630.68 

Obtaining Approval of the Management 

In addition to the estimate of savings furnished to the 
management, as represented by the president, manager of man- 
ufacturing, agent, or other final authority on the matter, any 



276 • TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

further data, summaries, or explanations desired should also 
be provided. 

The approval of the management makes the rates effective 
at once. The employment department should also approve the 
rates. Where the employees are highly organized and deal 
with the management under a collective agreement, the approval 
of their representative should also be obtained before the rates 
are effective. 

Notification to Departments Concerned 

Official notifications that the rates are effective should be 
given the departments concerned. Where it is practicable a 
blue-print copy of all time allowances, drawings, and instruc- 
tions should be furnished the foreman who will post it in a 
conspicuous place in the department. 

The pay-roll department should be given in writing the 
names and numbers of the employees starting on time work 
with bonus, a copy of the rate sheet, and a full set of rates 
as approved by the management. 

The planning department should be given official notice 
of the date on which the rates will go into effect and any fur- 
ther information necessary. The rate-setter, the clerk who 
writes the time allowed for each job on the employee's time- 
ticket, must of course be provided with a copy of all time allow- 
ances, drawings, and instructions. 

Explaining Rates to Employees 

The employee is, perhaps, the most concerned of all. A 
full explanation must be given him also of the application of 
time work with bonus to his job. This official explanation 
should be given him even though he may be — and should 
be — already more or less familiar with its principles, from 
the explanations of the analyst while he was making the 
studies. 



EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS 



277 



It is desirable to hold the conference in the office of the 
analyst where it can be less hurried than it would necessarily 
be in the factory. The foreman should be present. The 
presence of the foreman serves as a sign both to the foreman 
himself and to the employee that, although the new rates are 
not set by the foreman they will be maintained through his 
authority. It will also give the foreman detailed knowledge 
which he will need on the application of time work with bonus 
to each one of the operations in his department. 

While the explanation must be exact, it should also be sim- 
ple. The charts, curves, and method of calculating time allow- 
ances furnished the rate-setter might only serve to confuse 
the average employee, so that it may be necessary to use dis- 
cretion as to the amount of detail to go into with him. In any 
case, even though the employee exhibits little or no interest, 
the analyst should take the time to explain everything to his 
own satisfaction. The employee should also be told that he will 
be paid for all the time required to explain matters to him at 
this time or at any other time he feels he would like to have 
something made clear. 

Points to be Stressed 

The chief points to be stressed are the fundamental princi- 
ples of job standardization as applied to the employee's particu- 
lar operation. The purpose of all the analytical study and 
work which the employee has seen done is to find out the best 
and most expeditious ways of performing the operation so as 
to be able to set a standard method and time that is fair to 
everyone. The standard times are based on the studies with 
which he is familiar. They are not guesses nor are they in- 
ventions for speeding up. The increased production resulting 
from the use of the standard method and from knowing the 
standard time in which the job can be completed makes it 
possible for the management to pay the employee more money. 



278 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



If anything comes up which interferes with the employees 
earning the bonus, proper notification should be given. Allow- 
ance will be made to 
take care of conditions 
arising during the 
period of getting into 
the stride. The stand- 
ard times are not sub- 
ject to change, unless 
a marked change is 



made in the method, 
machinery, or equip- 
ment, reducing the 
amount of time neces- 
sary to complete the 
operation without in- 
creasing the effort on 
the part of the em- 
ployee ; so that he need 
not be afraid of rate- 
cutting when he be- 
comes expert in the 
new method. 

This explanation 
by the analyst affords 
an excellent opportun- 
ity of giving the em- 
ployee a glimpse into 
the principles and ap- 
plication of the new 




Figure 56. 



Decimal Time Dial Attached to a 
Regulation Clock Dial 



methods of management. 



At this time the employee may be 
shown how his output is based on the fact that the management 
furnishes materials to his machine and eliminates extra and 
unnecessary work. The fact that the work can be done in less 



EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS 



279 



time than formerly is the result of the increased attention given 
to these matters by the management. The way in which these 
matters are looked after by routing, scheduling, keeping a 
record of materials on hand, and so forth, may be explained to 
him by showing sample forms. 

Since standard times are expressed in hours, tenths, and 
hundredths, and the tickets accompanying the job are also 
stamped, when the employee starts and finishes it, in hours, 
tenths, and hundredths, he will be interested in the working 
of the decimal time clock. The way to make it clear is to com- 
pare the decimal clock to an ordinary clock. An auxiliary 
clock face or dial is sometimes used in the planning department 
to show the relation of decimal time hours to standard time 
hours. Such a dial can be made by glueing black gummed fig- 
ures on to the white disc, giving the entire surface several coats 
of shellac, and fastening the auxiliary clock face to the clock, 
outside of the case, as in Figure 56. 

Explaining the Pay 

The employee is usually interested primarily in the extra 
pay which time work with bonus makes it possible for him to 
earn. The principle may first be explained to him in much 
the same way as it has been stated in this volume (Chapter 
XVI). A careful explanation of its application to his individual 
job must then be given, making sure that he understands each 
point. The base rate — the amount per hour he will receive — 
is such and such a sum. The bonus rate is such and such a 
per cent of the time allowed. By figuring out a number of 
jobs from actual manufacturing orders the analyst will be 
able to show him just what is meant by the base and bonus 
rates, and how they work in practice. Such an explanation 
will make clear the amount paid per job and the way in which 
it is figured. The total amount to which his wage will come 
each week, if the bonus is earned 85 per cent of the time, should 







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280 



EXPLAINING THE STANDARDS 281 

also be figured out for him. He should furthermore be told 
the weekly sum he may expect and what the increase will be 
over what he previously received. 

He will be able to check the amount he received and the 
way in which it is made up by means of the records from the 
pay-roll department which will be sent him each day. This 
record is a carbon copy of the pay-roll sheet that department 
makes out for each individual employee. The employee's daily 
record sheet is given in Figure 57. 

There should be none of the "take it or leave it" attitude 
about the conference. Its purpose should be to recognize the 
vital concern of the employee in the conditions of his work. 

Adapting Explanations to Individuals 

The matter of explaining the standards in ways adapted to 
the individual executive and to the employee is something 
which, of course, depends on the character of the men with 
whom the analyst is dealing. Some employees, for instance, 
are intelligent and interested in their work, while others can 
see only the pay envelope at the end of the week ; still others are 
suspicious of any change. In this case, as always in job stan- 
dardization, the analyst must exercise tact. 



CHAPTER XIX 

APPLYING THE STANDARDS 

Methodized Application of Standards 

The method for determining the standard time scientifi- 
cally has been given in detail. It remains to describe the fourth 
and last phase in job standardization — that of applying the 
standards. 

The time required for this phase varies with the changes 
made in the method of performance, and the number of em- 
ployees working on the operation. It is rarely less than one- 
third as long as the time for the third phase, analyzing the 
studies and determining the standards. 

Success depends largely upon the way in which the stand- 
ards are applied. Whereas taking the studies and setting 
the standards is the most technical part of the job standardiza- 
tion, requiring much skill and patience, so that it is often the 
only aspect thought of by the uninitiated, the final step — that 
of applying the standards — is no less important. No matter 
how accurate and well established are the rates set, if the 
analyst cannot get the employees to accomplish the tasks and 
earn proper compensation his work is for nothing. 

If the co-operation of the superintendent and foreman has 
been completely gained at the start, and the work of determin- 
ing the standards has been carried out with the employees, 
the analyst will not meet with difficulties in applying the 
standards. This step, however, changes the subject of 
standards from an abstract possibility into a matter of immedi- 
ate and vital concern to the employee and, therefore, is the 
test of his confidence in the analyst. Furthermore, the fact 

282 



APPLYING THE STANDARDS 283 

that the time standards and the wages received are dependent 
upon the maintenance of all the other standards make it fatal 
to allow these standards to slip, as the department may have 
been doing in the past. For these reasons, the work of apply- 
ing the standards should at the start be done either by the 
analyst or by an assistant under his close supervision. After 
the employees are all accomplishing the work according to the 
standards, the analyst should establish a routine providing for 
the proper maintenance of all the standards, conditions, method 
and time. 

Starting Employees Individually 

The standards should be applied by starting one employee 
at a time. In the case of group work this means that one 
group at a time should be started working under them. This 
method of starting each employee or group separately pre- 
vents friction and misunderstanding. It, moreover, helps each 
employee to reach the standard in the shortest time possible, 
because it gives him attention, allowances for delays, and 
instruction adapted to his particular needs. After the first 
three or four employees have proved by their example that 
the standards are correct, the rest of the employees may be 
started in quick succession. 

This individual attention to the misapprehensions, diffi- 
culties, and desires of each employee is necessary because the 
new time-standards represent a change in principle, not only 
over day work but even over the usual piecework systems. 
Instead of being left to his own devices to produce the most 
he can in any way he wants, the employee is suddenly given a 
very definite measure of performance and expected to live up 
to it. Some employees, who have been jogging along using 
methods they worked out for themselves which are not the 
best, find the sudden change of method difficult, and naturally 
blame the standards instead of themselves, unless they are 



284 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

helped over the period of transition by explanation and instruc- 
tion. 

Starting Employees Simultaneously 

There may be circumstances making it necessary to modify 
or even to lay aside this principle and start all the employees 
simultaneously. Such a circumstance would arise where the 
rates were being introduced in response to long-continued pres- 
sure for their readjustment, where the patience of the em- 
ployees had reached a limit, and the management was unable 
to hold them off any longer. But only extreme cases justify 
starting all the employees simultaneously. 

An example of the trouble which was caused when an 
analyst made the mistake of introducing the rates by starting 
all the employees at once, occurred on the operation of collating 
calendar pads. The studies had been made on skilled employees 
with the resulting curve shown in Figure 58. From the hour 
they started the first job on time work with bonus, these same 
skilled employees on whom the studies had been made failed 
to earn the bonus. They maintained it was not possible to do 
the work in the time allowed. The standard times were 
checked, so that the employees could see that they were being 
treated fairly. The check studies showed that the men were 
doing the work more slowly than at the time the original 
studies were made. In fact, the difference between the times 
taken in the original studies and those taken in the check 
studies averaged 40 per cent. The curves in Figure 58 show 
the times marked X taken by the skilled employees previous to 
setting the new rates. Crosses with the notation B (xB) show 
the times taken after the new rates had been put into effect, 
when the employees put on the brakes and began to work 
slowly. 

The reason was that the skilled employees who were failing 
to make the standard times were close friends and in all prob- 



APPLYING THE STANDARDS 



285 



ability had agreed among themselves not to earn the bonus in 
the hope that the standard time would be increased. An inter- 
esting comment on the situation was that one of the employees. 



COLLATING CALENDER PADS BY HAND 

0.023 
0.022 
0.021 
0.020 
0.019 
0.018 
0.017 
0.016 
0.015 
0.014 
0.013 
0.012 
0.011 
0.010 

0,009 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 

Figure 58. Chart Showing Comparison of Times Taken by Skilled Employ- 
ees before and after Standards Were Set with the Standard Time Curve 

an average worker, but not of sufficient experience to be rated 
as first class, actually did the work in less than the time al- 
lowed by the analyst. This man had not been long in the em- 
ploy of the company and was not a member of the clique. His 
time is marked on the chart as xA. 

The analyst held a conference with the employees in which 
he explained the situation thoroughly. They returned to the 
work and made the standards. The trouble, however, should 
have been avoided in the first place by starting one employee 
at a time and explaining the rates to him before asking him 
to work under them, and then starting others singly until they 
all were convinced of the accuracy of the time standards. 



1 1 

Values 


C 


1 1 
Collate Pads 




1 1 1 
Combined 












1 1 1 1 
Standard Time 


|for| 
Items' 


J 
P 


Jog Pads 
-Place Pads or 


Filt 


in One 
Curve 






















Tim 


3 in C 


-urv 


iisf 


jr22 


x28- 


30 lb 


Sto 


ck, p 


er 1 s 


heet 




















































































A\ 


Net Time 






m 

0) 


















(B [ 


1 / 


<3 


















3 
B 
















































































s 
























'Results' of Detail Time Studies 
X- Skilled Employees Previous to 
Setting Task and Bonus Rates 
XB- Skilled Employees after Setting 
Standard. Employees claimed that 


H 














































































XA- Average Employee but not of 
sufficient 1 experience to be rated as 




















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286 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Instructing Employees 

The matter of proper instruction is very important in the 
application of the standards, especially if changes have been 
made in the handling of the work. Instruction is an essential 
part of the program of job standardization. The standard 
times are based on the "best" method and procedure, the de- 
termination of which is the result of careful study. If the 
employees fail to follow this "best method" they will probably 
do one of three things : be unable to complete the work in the 
standard time; complete the work in the standard time, but 
fall down on quality ; or complete the work in the standard time 
and of the standard quality, but fatigue themselves by not go- 
ing about it in the right way. 

Economy of Methodized Instruction 

If the management, then, expects either a large quantity or 
a first-class quality produced, it must assume responsibility for 
showing the employees the methods which make for quality 
and quantity production. Standards of work cannot be main- 
tained if each new employee is let loose, so to speak, in the 
department, given a number and a work place or a machine, 
instructed occasionally by an old worker who looks on him as 
a nuisance, and supervised by an overworked foreman. Under 
such rule-of -thumb methods it takes months to break in a work- 
man even on the simplest operation. Although the old em- 
ployees who have been "trained up" — if it can be called train- 
ing — under this antiquated system, may have acquired skill 
through long years of practice, even they do not often make 
use of the best methods, because no one has taken the pains 
to study the operation and bring together the most effective 
ways of performing each of its elements. Proper instruction 
helps the employee to become skilled in the shortest possible 
time. Under ideal conditions every operation or group of 
operations is under the direction of a special instructor. Em- 



APPLYING THE STANDARDS 287 

ployers are beginning to realize that such practice is economy — 
not expense. Some few concerns even go so far as to offer 
training courses for beginners. The training course teaches 
the beginner his job entirely away from the department in 
which he will be placed later under special direction. 

The Instruction Engineer 

A recent development in industrial work is the profession 
of "instruction engineer." The instruction engineer is a mem- 
ber of a concern of consulting engineers in industrial manage- 
ment and is sent to serve clients who appreciate the economy 
of instructing their employees in methods of work. The in- 
struction engineer starts a definite plan of instruction adapted 
to the needs of the factory and teaches men from the client's 
own organization how to act as instructors. His work should 
follow, not precede, job standardization. The instruction en- 
gineer should not attempt to determine the best methods, be- 
cause he does not have the same opportunity to do so as the 
analyst. He takes the methods which are commonly accepted 
as the best and shows how they can be taught in the best way. 
If job standardization already has been undertaken, the 
methods which he teaches are the best methods under present 
conditions, since their determination is the result of detailed 
study. 

Duties of Instructor 

The duties of the regular instructor should be clearly 
limited and defined. The instructor should be responsible 
primarily for the quantity produced, he should also be respon- 
sible for attaining the speed of rhythm which gets quality as 
well. His duties are : 

1. To teach new employees. 

2. To show all employees the best methods. 



288 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

3. To make sure that they are capable of following them. 

4. To make it easy for the employees to do the work by 

seeing that they are supplied with material and tools. 

5. To maintain quality. 

Foreman and Instructor 

The relation of the instructor to the foreman and others 
in authority should be made absolutely clear. A strong fore- 
man is prone to curtail the instructor's powers too much. On 
the other hand the instructor who has a weak foreman will 
sometimes exceed his authority. The instructor is answerable 
to the foreman for his own conduct, but not for the conduct of 
the employees whom he is teaching. He should be able to 
call on the foreman's authority whenever he feels that it is 
necessary. 

Analyst and Instructor 

The instructor assists the analyst during the period of 
introduction of time work and bonus. Since he is on the spot 
all the time, he will be able to see that the employees are pro- 
vided with equipment, materials, and every facility for doing 
the work in the standard time. He will be able to show the 
employees why they fail to earn the bonus and where their 
methods are faulty, and to teach them the new methods when 
they are not already familiar with them. 

On operations where there is no instructor the analyst may 
be obliged to be responsible for teaching new methods. This 
does not mean that he will put on overalls and take the machine 
in hand himself, which is never advisable even were it practi- 
cable. The analyst has a working knowledge from observation 
of all the operations studied. If he were to attempt to acquire 
the expert knowledge necessary to demonstrate to the skilled 
employees how the work should be done, he would have little 
time in which to make studies. Besides, it is not necessary 



APPLYING THE STANDARDS 289 

for the analyst to make an actual demonstration as his method 
consists of taking stop-watch observations of a workman who 
is to be instructed and from these studies telling the workman 
wherein his method differs from the standard and in what 
elements he takes more time than standard. In case it should 
be necessary to make an actual demonstration to the workman 
the analyst calls the foreman or some other skilled employee 
to his aid. 

Following Up Employees 

In any case, it is better for the analyst or for one of his 
assistants to devote a major part of the time to following up 
the work of the employees who were first to be started under 
the new standards, because there are innumerable complica- 
tions which arise during the first few weeks when the standards 
are being put into effect. Someone must, therefore, be in the 
department almost constantly, correcting unfavorable condi- 
tions, answering questions, and generally seeing that the change 
from the old method to the new is made without friction. 

Eliminating Unforeseen Complications 

Complications arise when material fails to come through 
as scheduled or when it is imperfect in quality, or when any 
other condition falls below standard, and at first the attempt 
to hold conditions strictly to standard involves constant effort 
and attention. That is why the analyst or assistant should be 
in touch with the employees, so as to be sure their effort is 
not relaxed. The situation, however, soon should straighten 
itself out, as the entire department begins to realize the cost 
of letting the standards fall. Since each case which does occur 
must be noted in order to give the employees a proper allow- 
ance of time, it is easy to figure the reports of time lost in dol- 
lars and cents. This will bring forcibly to everyone's attention 
the magnitude of small delays. 



290 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Answering Employee's Questions 

Another reason why a member of the job standardization 
staff should be almost constantly in the department in which 
the standards are being applied is that during the time the em- 
ployee is adjusting himself to the new standards, he is sure to 
ask many questions. Although the explanation to the employee 
described in Chapter XVIII should already have answered 
these questions, it is while the employee is actually working 
on the operation that he can best understand the answers. 

The employee is especially likely to make comparisons be- 
tween the standard times allowed for different jobs. If the 
relation is not what he would have expected he wants to know 
the reason. In order to make it clear the analyst will have to 
explain the different requirements of the two jobs, showing 
how the method of calculating the standard time is applied 
to them and pointing out just where the differences in the time 
occur. 

Making Allowances for Standards 

While the employee is getting into the stride, additional 
time is sometimes allowed. The employee in starting to work 
according to the standards may be anxious to make good and 
actually take more time than he realizes though he may feel he 
is working extremely well. It takes a certain amount of time 
for him to become familiar with any changes which have been 
made. The extra time allowed should be definitely stated on 
the employee's time ticket so that he may know exactly the 
amount allowed. In some cases 20 per cent extra time may be 
allowed on all jobs worked on during the first week, then 10 
per cent for the second week, 5 per cent for the third week, 
and no allowance from then on. 

A definite percentage allowance for stated periods over 
and above the standard time is not always used ; it is not one 
which the author advises. Instead it is better for the analyst 



APPLYING THE STANDARDS 



291 



to give individual allowances where it is justified for special 
instances of failure to make the standard. During this intro- 
ductory period an allowance may often be given when the 
failure is not really due to the fault of the employee, as for in- 
stance, as the result of unfamiliarity with new methods. Since 
each employee is being considered separately and treated as an 
individual, the analyst may grant special allowances because 
he knows the particular circumstances that make it desirable. 
During the period of follow-up, all tickets showing whether 
the standard has been reached or not will be sent to the analyst 
before being sent to the pay-roll department. This is very im- 
portant, because it informs the analyst at once of failures to 
make the standards. He can then investigate the cause before 
it is buried in oblivion. If the cause warrants it, he can, before 
the daily earnings are figured, make any adjustment or allow- 
ance due the employee. 

Maintaining Standards 

Even after the employees are all "over the top" and are 
capable of making the time standards practically all the time, 
the analyst should not consider that his responsibility has 
ceased. From one point of view this last phase, "applying 
the standards," is never finished. The permanent work in- 
volved in it, however, may be reduced to a routine, requiring 
little time or attention. 

The time standards set by job standardization are dependent 
on all other standards. In other words, if the material is in 
poor condition or does not come through on time, or the ma- 
chine is out of repair, or other delays occur, the employees 
cannot make the time standards. Therefore, the analyst, in- 
stead of leaving this to be reported by the foreman, should 
institute routines which will automatically call to his attention 
or to that of those responsible the reason for the failure when 
results fall below standard. 



292 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



REPORT ON INTERRUPTIONS 



REPORT ANY DELAY HOLDING UP PROGRESS OF WORK, 
WAITING TIME AFFECTING BONUS EMPLOYEES. DAMASE 
TO MATERIALS, MACHINE REPAIRS OR CHANGES 



SCHEDULE MAN: 



PROGRESS OF WORK ON ORDER NO. 

NOW IN OPERATION AT 

IS HELD UP BECAUSE OF: 



Recording Delays 

A record should be made of any unusual delay occurring in 
connection with the operation, giving the cause and the time 

lost. A standard form 
for this use, called a "Re- 
port on Interruptions," 
should be instituted. This 
form is shown in Figure 
59. It should be used 
when necessary, but 
should not be abused. If 
materials are not up to 
standard, if they are de- 
layed, of if a machine 
breaks down, a report on 
interruptions should be 
issued to cover the situa- 
tion. The report should 
be signed both by the fore- 
man and by the head of 
the planning department. 
This will help to prevent 
any abuse. It also brings 
the delay forcibly to the 
attention of those who 
may be considered re- 
sponsible for it. Although 
the report on interruptions 
may be used in adjusting 
the pay-roll where the 
failure to earn the bonus is not the fault of the employee, it 
should be used primarily for calling the attention of all those 
executives who are responsible to conditions which ought to be 
corrected. 



DAMAGE IF ANY- 
CAUSE 



WAITING TICKET 



REMARKS- 



EMPLOYEES NAME- 
OPERATION 



REPORTED BY- 



INSPECTOR IN CHARGE- 
CHIEF INSPECTOR 



SCHEDULE ROUTE 
MAN MAN 



Figure 59. Regulation Report on Inter- 
ruptions 



APPLYING THE STANDARDS 



293 



Bonus Allowances 

When extra allowances are given to the employee for the 
first few weeks he starts to work on new standards, confusion 
sometimes occurs as to how to figure the bonus. The agree- 
ment with the employee when he starts working on standard 
production is that he shall receive, aside from his day's work, 
a bonus based on the standard, provided he accomplishes the 
work in regulation time. If then, in starting out, the com- 
pany allows him extra time over and above the standard time, 
he should not expect to receive besides this a bonus on the 
extra time. Because of the error of paying a bonus on the 
extra time allowed, hard feelings may often arise when the 
employee finds that, after the allowances are no longer being 
made, he does not get as much money as he did when he started 
the work under the standards. 



Daily Production Record 

Another routine which prevents employees' falling below 
the standards is the institution of a graphic record of the daily 







NAME 






Pay-Roll Sheet 














SHEET NO. 
PAY ENDING 
















=IASE HA 


rE 
















Date 


E | 


l="o 


Machine 
Symbol 


Job 
Number 


Quantity 


Time 
Allow- 
ed 


. • ATTENDANCE HOURS 


IS 


Earnings 


Time 
Out 


"I s S 


Dam- 
age 


Day 
Work 


Overtime 


A 


B 













































































































































Figure 60. Typical Pay-Roil Sheet 

output of each employee as measured by his earnings. This 
record may be kept by the employment department, which, in 



294 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



order to know whether employees are making good, must be 
familiar with the work they are doing. 

The pay-roll department is obliged to keep a daily record 
of the earnings of each employee. These may be made out 
by hand on a sheet like the one shown in Figure 60 or may 



d < 





i-lOO- 






















































































































































-a- 



OS 

Q 


— 

-100- 


- - 


~_^ 








/ 
/ 
1 
1 






"~~ 


-N s 


^ 


„ 

























































c 











. 





_^ 







.-— - 


»^> 


~~^ 








h 

O 


















































































— 











~^__ 








-100- 


Note: 


$4.00 
3.00 


= 100»Bonu 
= Day Rate 


s 


















Daily 
PerC 


Earnings — 


rlr 










































— 












\ 










1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


Jan- 

1 


lary 

I . 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 



4 5 6 7 9 10 11121314.16 171819 20 2123 2425 26 27 2830 31 

Figure 61. Chart Showing Daily Earnings of Employees 

be made on a tabulating machine, if there are a great many 
employees. After the weekly pay-roll is figured the individual 
reports should be turned over to the employment department. 
The figures should there be drawn off" on charts which show 
the daily earnings in graphic form. 

A daily record chart of this sort is given in Figure 61. 
The chart shows the earnings made during the first month the 



APPLYING THE STANDARDS 



295 



employees were on time work with bonus. When the operators 
earned the bonus 100 per cent of the time they made $4 a day, 
while if they were unable to do the work in the standard time 
they made only $2. The solid line indicates the daily earnings, 
while the dash line shows the percentage of day work. By 
the end of the month most of the employees were earning 
almost 100 per cent bonus, and the amount of day work (which 
in the middle of the month had been very large) was greatly 
reduced. 

The analyst will look into all cases where any employee 
fails to earn the bonus 85 per cent of the time, or if the amount 
of day work shows an appreciable increase. 

Completing Job Standardization 

The institution of these routines for maintaining the 
standards marks the completion of job standardization on 
the particular operation. The standards determined are now 
in effect, and both the management and the employees are get- 
ting the benefits of the resulting increase in production. In- 
structors are teaching new employees, so that the standard 
methods and times are becoming a part of the tradition of the 
factory, handed down from the older generation of workers 
to the younger. The fact that the time standards are dependent 
on the standards of condition and that the maintenance of the 
time standards is being checked by the graphical record of 
daily earnings acts as a check on all the standards of produc- 
tion. 



CHAPTER XX 

PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 

Establishing Routine for Perpetuating Standards 

The responsibility of the analyst in applying the standards 
has not ceased until he has devised some means of making them 
"self-applying." From one point of view, applying the stand- 
ards is never completed. Even when all the employees are 
capable of making time standards under standard conditions, 
there must still be some way devised for holding conditions 
to standard. The management should continuously know how 
nearly the actual conditions, as regards the work of the em- 
ployees, the state of the machines, and the like approach the 
standard. In order that the management should be so in- 
formed the analyst must devise routines which require as little 
time as possible and which may be carried out by clerks, but 
which will show the executives a summary of the situation. 

Graphical Charts for Perpetuating Standards 

The best means to give the executives a comprehensive 
view of the production situation at a glance are graphic charts 
which may be made to combine, in the briefest and most effect- 
ive form, a picture of what the factory should do with what 
it actually is doing. 

These graphical representations of facts provide executives 
from the lowest to the highest with a summary of the situation. 
The amount of detail to be presented to any executive depends 
upon his particular duties. The manager of manufacturing 
needs information which will assure him that the stream of 
production is flowing smoothly, and which will help him de- 

296 



PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 



297 



tect any error that may interfere with the standard output. 
Each executive below the manager of manufacturing requires 
information about his particular part of the work and — 
whether the amount of detail shown is large or small — the 
charts should summarize the situation. They should give in 
concentrated form the status of the factory at all times and 
the results that are being obtained in each department, so that 
the executive may keep his finger on the pulse of the business. 
Whenever the results look unsatisfacory or questionable he 
should take immediate steps to have the conditions remedied. 
The charts should show : 

1. Per cent bonus earned by employees working on stand- 

dardized work — key to the proficiency of the work- 
men. 

2. Production record — actual production in comparison 

to maximum. 

3. Analysis of machine time — down time; repair time; 

make-ready time; running time. 

4. Weekly analysis of department time — work paid for 

which is on a task basis ; work paid for which is on 
a piecework basis; work paid for which is on a day 
work like — 

(a) Supervision. 

(b) Handling materials. 

(c) Productive work not on -a task or piece- 

work basis. 

5. Delayed time. 

6. Proficiency of department. 

Graphical Reports 

The following charts and reports are being used in a certain 
factory to provide a mechanism which shows in concentrated 
form the status of the factory at all times : 



298 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

1. Daily production record (see Figure 62) 

2. Daily record of production and machine time (see 

Figure 63) 

3. Daily analysis of machine time (see Figure 64) 

4. Daily bonus report (see Figure 65) 

5. Daily analysis of time work with bonus (see Figure 

66) 

6. Weekly analysis of the distribution of the pay-roll 

(see Figure 67) 

7. Weekly analysis of the proficiency of the department 

time (see Figure 68) 

Separate reports and charts are made out for each depart- 
ment. The reports are filed in loose-leaf binders and are placed 
on the desk of the planning superintendent. They are consulted 
by him and by the process superintendent daily. Charts are 
also installed in the office of the manager of manufacturing 
where he may consult them each day and in this way keep 
himself informed as to the situation. 

Daily Production Record 

The daily production record (Figure 62) is particularly 
valuable when machines are an important factor in the cost 
of operation. For instance, in a paper-mill the hourly rate on 
the machine which makes the paper is about $15. This repre- 
sents the overhead expense which the machine must absorb 
for each hour that it runs. It also makes clear the necessity 
for running the machine as many hours as possible. This rate 
does not include the wages of the men operating the machine — 
only such expense as power, depreciation, and repairs. The 
daily production record is an important medium for keeping 
track of the actual performance. It shows : 

1. Standard Production for Standard Running Time. 
This shows the amount the machine should turn out after 



PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 



299 



1 1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 1 


M 


irch 


1 1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 1 


1 1 

Ap 


1 1 
ril 


1 1 


1 1 






















\ 




, N 




~» % 


/ 




s'^ 




,.._ 




JS..- 


--^ 




v~ 


"1 •' 


r 




'l^ 


1 


'•r 






fV' 


'' \ 


( 


\ 




. h 




V 




'/ V ~ 




sA 




/// 




1 in 

\\ 11 
V '/ 




V * ' 


7 




7 




till 

w 














7 








\j 






J 
v/ 


















































t 




X 




X 






X 




X 















making proper allowances for getting it ready (technically 
known as "make ready") and for other necessary delays. This 
is represented on the chart by the dotted lines. 

BOX-MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT 

13 4 5 6 7 8 101112131415171819202122242526272829311 2 3 4 7 8 9 10 11 14 15 16 171S 21 



No. of 
Cartons 



1,500,000 



1,000,000 



600,000 



100.000 

Figure 62. Graphic Chart Giving Daily Production Record: 

(a) Standard production for standard running time represented 

by 

(b) Standard production for the time the machines are actually running 

represented by ■ — 

(c) Actual production represented by «^^-^_— 

(d) x designates Saturday 

2. Standard Production for the Time the Machines Are 
Actually Running. This shows the amount the machines should 
turn out while actually running. It is represented in the chart 
by the dash lines. 

The difference between the dotted line and the dash line 
indicates the loss in production due to the "make ready." 

3. Actual Production. The actual production is repre- 
sented by the solid line. 

The difference between the dash line and the solid line 
represents the loss in production which is due to the fact that 
the workmen do not get the standardized amount of production 
from the machines. 



3°° 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



The data for the chart on the daily production record is 
computed from the daily record of production and machine 



CARTON DEPARTMENT 

DAILY RECORO OF PRODUCTION AND MACHINE TIME 


Mach. 
No. 


Qrder 
No. 


Oper. 
No. 


PRODUCTION 

OF 

CARTONS 

OR SHEETS 


MACHINE TIME 


No. 
Work 
Sched 


No. 
Help 


First 

Task 
Product 
per Hour 


Standard Production 


Runn- 
ing 
Time 


WAITING FOR 


For Time 
Mach. are 
Running 


ForSt'nd'rt 

Running 

Time 


_Make 


RiMlly 


Oper. 


Work 


Repairs 




CM-1 
































































CM-2 
































































TdIoI 
































CC-1 


























































































CC-4 
































































TotaT 
































SA-1 












































1 — 












1 1 


SA-7 
































































Total 
































































































































































Total 



































Figure 63. Daily Record of Production and Machine Time 



time. (See Figure 63.) The data is first posted on the daily 
record direct from time tickets of the job. Items 1 and 2 
are then computed as follows : 

1. Standard Production for Standard Running Time. 
The method of finding the standard production for machines 
running a predetermined part of the total possible running 



PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 



301 



time may be found by a description of the way in which it 
was computed for a particular class of machine. Ten per cent 
of the total possible running time was required on machines 
of this class for "make ready" and 5 per cent for machine 
adjustments and small repairs. The time remaining was 85 
per cent of the total possible running time and was taken as 
the standard running time of each machine. 

2. Standard Production for the Time the Machines Are 
Actually Running. Standard production is that output which 
would be obtained by employees earning the first bonus. The 
standard production for the time which the machines are run- 
ning is equal to the production per hour of the employee earn- 
ing the first bonus, multiplied by the number of running hours 
of the machine. The standard production for time which 
machines are running, and for all machines in one group, is 
the summation of the standard production for each machine 
in that group. 

3. Actual Production. The actual production which the 
machine turns out on each order is shown on the machine 
feeder's time ticket and therefore requires no such computing 
as items 1 and 2. The value is taken direct from these tickets. 

There were six machines of this type in the department 
of the plant referred to. The plant was run on a 48-hour 
week, so that its possible running time was equal to 8 hours 
and 40 minutes for 5 days a week and 4 hours and 40 minutes 
for one day a week. Since there were 6 machines of this 
particular class, the standard running time for 1 full day for 
all these machines was equal to : 

8 hours 40 minutes X 6 = 52 hours, total possible running 

time. 
85% of 8 hours 40 minutes = 44 hours 10 minutes, total 

standard running time. 

The standard running time for each short day was equal to : 



3 o2 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

4 hours 40 minutes X 6 = 28 hours, total possible running 

time. 
85% of 4 hours 40 minutes = 23 hours 48 minutes, total 

standard running time. 

In other words, the relation between the standard pro- 
duction in running time and the standard production in 85 
per cent running time is the same as the ratio between the 
actual running time and 85 per cent running time. 

As expressed in a formula, the standard production for 85 
per cent of the running time is equal to : 

Total Standard Production 
in Actual Running Time v ^ % q£ ^ ^ posgible Running Time 
Total Actual Running Time 

This method of collating the daily production information 
and the record of machine time should take the place of the 
records which are usually kept by the foreman's clerk. Such 
foremen's records are more or less inaccurate because of the 
failure to obtain necessary information in sufficient detail to 
disclose actual conditions in the department. Consequently 
they do not show the facts as well as graphical charts would. 
By close attention to these graphical charts the planning super- 
intendent and the process superintendent are able to discover 
the points at which it is necessary to bring pressure to bear 
to increase the output and to keep the production uniformly 
up to the maximum. 

Daily Analysis of Machine Time 

This record, like the daily production record, is most 
important when the machines are a factor in the cost of an 
operation. ( See Figure 64. ) It shows : 

1. Running time (represented by heavy solid line). 

2. No work scheduled (represented by dot and dash line). 

3. Waiting for repairs (represented by dot line). 



PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 



303 



4. Waiting for "make ready" (represented by dash 

line). 

5. Waiting for work and workmen (represented by light 

solid line). 

6. Total machine hours per day. 

7. Standard machine hours per day (15 per cent allowed 

for "make ready" and machine adjustments). 

BOX-MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT 



13 4 5 6 7 8 10111213141517181920 2122 242526 272829 311 2 3 4 7 8 9 1011141516171821 




Figure 64. Graphic Chart Giving Daily Analysis of Machine Time 

(a) Running time 

(b) No work scheduled • — 

(c) Waiting for repairs 

(d) Waiting for make ready 

(e) Waiting for work and workmen 

1. Running time — this running time is copied direct from 

the machine feeder's time ticket. 

2. No work scheduled. 

3. Waiting for repairs. 



3 4 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

4. Waiting for "make ready" — the time waiting for 

"make ready" is taken direct from the time ticket of 
the workmen doing this work. 

5. Waiting for work and workmen — these three items are 

taken from a special ticket for delayed machine 
time. 

6. Total machine hours per day — the total machine hours 

per day for a group of machines is equal to the 
number of possible running hours per machine 
(without any allowance) multiplied by the number 
of machines in the group. This is a constant value 
and is only increased or decreased as a machine or 
machines are added or eliminated. This is shown 
by break in curve on March 31st when a new 
machine was added to the group. 

7. Standard machine hours per day — this curve is parallel 

to curve for item 6, but is 1 5 per cent lower in value, 
which is an average allowance to take care for the 
time necessary for "make ready" and machine ad- 
justments. 

Daily Analysis of Time Work with Bonus 

The data for the chart is taken from the daily bonus report 
(Figure 65). The daily bonus report shows just what bonus 
is earned. If no bonus is earned on the ticket, it is posted in 
flat-time column. 

Each morning before nine o'clock a clerk should figure on 
the daily bonus report the percentage of tickets on first, second, 
and third bonuses, and on flat time, for the previous day. 1 

The result of the daily bonus report should be plotted each 
day by nine thirty o'clock, on the graphical chart (see Figure 

1 This illustration is taken from a factory where the work is entirely seasonal, making 
it necessary to have the employees work on different operations according to the particular 
season. For this reason it could not be expected that all the employees should be devel- 
oped in a short season to the highest efficiency. The graded plan of payment is an 
equitable means for taking care of a condition of this kind. 



PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 



305 



PLEASE SENDTHIS REPORT TO 




















CHECK WITH INITIALS 


HERE 


DAILY BONUS REPORT 






RECORDING SECTION 












DEPARTMENT 


TIME & JOB ANALYSIS 












I-IATF 109 


FOREMAN 








NO. 1 

BONUS 


NO. 2 
BONUS 


NO. 3 
BONUS 


FLAT 
TIME 


REMARKS 


PRODUCTION MAN 




R.C. FEED AND CATCH 




















P.P. FEED 




















R.P. FEED AND CATCH 




















A.G. FEED AND CATCH 




















H.G. FEED AND CATCH 




















A.G. INSPECTION 




















SEPARATE AFTER P.P. 




















SEPARATE AFTER R.P. 




























































TOTAL 




















PERCENTAGE 




















TO OBTAIN PERCENTAGE ADD TOTALS OF NO. 1. NO. 2. NO. 3 AND FLAT TIME COLUMNS THEN DIVIDE 


TOTAL OF EACH BY TOTAL OF ALL COLUMNS. 



















Figure 65. Daily Bonus Report 



306 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



66), showing the percentage of first, second, and third bonuses, 
and flat time, as follows : 

Percentage of first bonus (represented by dot and dash line) 

" second " ( " " dash " ) 

" third " ( " " solid " ) 

" flat time ( " " dot " ) 



BOX-MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT 

7 8 101112131415171819202122242526272829311 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10111415161718 21222324282930 



March 



April 



/\ 



\7 



v 



/ i 




Figure 66. Graphic Chart Showing Daily Analysis of Time Work with Bonus 

(a) First Bonus 

(b) Second Bonus 

(c) Third Bonus — — — -^— 

(d) Flat Time - 

Weekly Analysis of Departmental Time 

The chart (see Figure 67) is of particular interest to the 
planning superintendent in assisting him to keep the non-pro- 
ductive labor at a minimum. 



PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 



30/ 



The data for the analysis of department time should be 
taken from pay-roll sheets. 

The data for the curves showing tne analysis of department 
time should be entered on the pay-roll sheet as soon as pay- 
roll information is posted in the pay-roll department. 



1005* 



DEPARTMENT-BOX MAKING 

4/12 4/l9 4/26 5/3 5/10 5/l7 5/24 5/31 6/7 6/14 6/21 6/24 7/ 5 




Figure 67. Weekly Analysis of Distribution of Pay-Roll 



Immediately on closing the pay-roll sheets for the week 
the pay-roll department will take the data necessary for com- 
puting the chart from the pay-roll sheets and report this in- 
formation to the planning department. This report shows : 



308 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

i„ Percentage of total time paid for on a basis of time 
work with bonus (represented by solid line) 

2. Percentage of total time paid for on piecework basis 

(represented by dash line) 

3. Percentage of total time paid for on a day work basis 

(Day work includes: supervision; handling mate- 
rials; production on a day work basis) (repre- 
sented by dot line) 

4. Percentage of total time which is charged to delayed 

operations (represented by dot and dash line) 

Weekly Analysis of Departmental Proficiency 

The weekly analysis of departmental proficiency chart 
shows the executives the true conditions existing in his factory. 

The data for computing the percentage of standard output 
obtained by workers paid on a basis of time work with bonus 
is taken, once each week, from the daily bonus reports and is 
computed as follows : 

Example of figuring proficiency of a department : 

Bonus Earned During Week 
Department 

1st Bonus 2nd Bonus 3rd Bonus Flat Time 

Mon 60 20 10 10 

Tues 40 40 15 17 

Wed 80 29 30 5 

Thurs 50 30 42 12 

Fri 70 16 18 28 

Sat 60 2>7 8 2 7 

Total .... 360 172 123 99 

Percentage .. 47-5% 22.8% 16.3% 13.1% 

The relation of second bonus, third bonus, and flat time to 
first bonus is as follows : 



PERPETUATING THE STANDARDS 

1st bonus shows that employee is 100% proficient. 

2nd " " " " 85% 

3rd " " " " 70% 

Flat Time " " " " 50% 



309 



DEPARTMENT-BOX MAKING 

4/l2 4/19 4/26 5/3 5/10 5/17 5/24 5/31 6/7 6/14 6/21 6/24 7/ 5 




Figure 68. Weekly Analysis of Departmental Proficiency 

The percentage of standard output actually obtained by- 
employees paid on basis of time work with bonus is equal to : 

ist bonus 47.5% of 100% equals 47.5% 

2nd " 22.8% " 85% " 19.4% 

3rd " 16.3% " 70% " 11.4% 

Flat time 13.1% " 50% " 6.5% 



84.8% Proficient 

After the above computations have been made and checked 
the clerk will plot the results (Figure 68) and file the com- 
putations in the planning department file. 

Completion of Job Standardization 

The principle of these charts and reports may be applied to 
any business, although some of the details may be only adapted 



310 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

to the needs of the case in question. The data on which these 
charts are based are found through job standardization. Their 
greatest value is the mechanism by which the standards set by 
job standardization is perpetuated. 

Until he has set up some such routine as is given in these 
charts the work of the analyst cannot be said to be fully devel- 
oped or complete. The standard methods and times should be a 
part of the tradition of the factory, handed down from the old 
generation of workers to the new. They should also be con- 
stantly brought to the attention of the management, in the 
office, and constantly checked, maintained, and improved. In 
this way they will become perpetual, and the management and 
the employees will reap the benefits of continually increased 
production. 



CHAPTER XXI 

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT AND INCREASED 
PRODUCTION 

Simplification of Industry 

The entire process of job standardization which has been 
described, complex as it may seem, is based on the fact that 
increased production with a lower unit cost is impossible unless 
modern large-scale industry is first simplified. It was stated 
in the first chapter that what is needed is a resimplification of 
industry. The simplicity of the original one-room shop where 
there were comparatively few operations performed by a few 
men and it was easy for the owner to know the details of the 
work is out of the question in a large industry. Aside from 
the complexity introduced by large-scale manufacturing and 
division of labor, there are still more important factors to deal 
with in the products of industry. All of which means that 
operations must be studied with the completeness of analysis 
described and that job standardization is necessary for the 
reason that simplification of a modern business involves the 
rediscovery of the relation existing between the many opera- 
tions which are scattered over many departments and often 
over many mills. 

Simplicity in industry, as in everything else, is the result 
of an infinite capacity for taking pains. At first it seems as 
if the elaborate and many-sided developments which simpli- 
fication necessitates occasions still greater complexity. This 
is not the case. The study and development are complex, but 
they result in a definite set of rules for processing materials 

311 



312 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

and a definite method of putting the rules into practice. The 
result is simple because it removes doubt and makes for cer- 
tainty in conducting the business. The apparent complexity 
due to highly ramified business is justified since it serves in 
the long run to reduce the inevitable complexity of modern 
industry. The process of job standardization is necessary in 
order to understand each operation in its relation to other 
operations. When the standards have been determined and 
applied, and not until then, the management is able to lay out 
each part of the work so that the business as a whole shall 
profit. 

Phases of Scientific Management 

Simplification of industry requires first of all the setting 
of standards. The method of setting and applying the stand- 
ards has been outlined in the preceding chapters. The result 
of this process is that the methods of performance adapted to 
the characteristics of each operation become incorporated into 
shop traditions and performance. 

Secondly, simplification requires that standards which have 
been determined shall be maintained. The necessity for this 
has already been discussed in Chapter XX. The charts shown 
in this chapter, however, would constantly show a marked 
decline in proficiency unless the standards could be maintained 
by a systematic managerial control. In other words the 
management must take the responsibility of planning the work 
from year to year, from month to month, and even from day 
to day in accordance with demands and with the standards set, 
and must see that these plans are followed. 

The development of simplification in industry by setting 
and controlling standards has been called "scientific manage- 
ment." 

Scientific management includes two major phases. One is 
standardization, the other is control. Since without function- 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 



3 J 3 



alization control could not be carried out, functionalization 
may, in a sense, be said to be a third phase of scientific man- 
agement. 

Scientific Management Defined 

For the sake of clearness it might be well to repeat the 
definition given in Chapter I which condenses what has just 
been said in regard to scientific management. 

The term "scientific management" is used to characterize 
that form of organization or procedure which is based on 
principles and laws established by a thorough investigation of 
manual and machine processes, materials, tools, equipment, and 
physical and psychological operating conditions; which stand- 
ardizes operations and provides for instruction in new methods 
of execution; and which develops and maintains precise and 
automatic control, including the organization of the personnel, 
the processes, the materials, and the equipment in such func- 
tional co-operative relations as will utilize the highest technical 
skill available and capable of development in planning, super- 
vising, and executing. 

The establishment of standards to which this book is 
devoted, is only one part of the field covered by scientific man- 
agement. The other part, equally important, is the develop- 
ment and maintenance of precise and automatic control. Fof 
the sake of greater clearness and brevity the existence of the 
second phase of scientific management has been assumed 
throughout the book. Nevertheless the connection between the 
two phases, and a few of their outstanding features, should 
be touched upon in order to give some idea of the way in 
which scientific management works in its attempt to simplify 
industry and increase production. A general idea of the sub- 
ject as applied to manufacturing is all that can be given in a 
single chapter, but the fact that scientific management deals 
with all the aspects of business and that its principles can and 



314 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

should be applied to every undertaking must on no account 
be forgotten. 

In considering standardization in relation to control the 
subject is considered from a different and more generalized 
point of view than the one that has been taken in the book. 

Standardization 

In so far as management methods can be considered scien- 
tific in any sense of the word they must include standardization. 
The term standardization is used to cover the thorough inves- 
tigation of all problems and conditions with the purpose of 
determining the laws which govern them. In industry a stand- 
ard found by analysis is not final, but may be defined as the 
best devisable set-up which can be established economically at 
a particular time and under particular conditions. As the con- 
ditions change, this set-up is subjected to a reanalysis according 
to the laws found to govern the circumstances at the time, 
and rejected or adopted as it fails or succeeds in increasing 
the efficiency of performance. Thus the process of standard- 
ization is continuous. The method of operating, strange as 
it may seem, has not been studied and developed to the point 
that the standardization of the product has been studied 
and developed. In many cases when the term standardization 
is mentioned executives show no interest, for they immediately 
think of the standardization of their finished product which 
they have spent large sums of money to perfect in every minute 
detail. On the one hand, when it comes to standardization of 
methods of production they are content to follow methods 
which are the result of combinations of chance circumstances. 
Hence a complex body of practices develops, that bear no 
relation to the requirements of the work as a whole, and, 
because they are not based on laws, involve waste effort. The 
confusion of purpose of which they are the result ends in a 
general bewilderment which is manifest throughout the whole 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 



315 



process of production. Until their complexity is standardized 
there can be no simplicity of operation. 

A pertinent illustration of a simple and effective way of 
applying carefully thought out principles is shown by the stand- 
ards developed for the installation of Ford starters. There 
are two points brought out by this illustration — (1) the value 
of developing a standard method, and (2) the necessity of ex- 
pressing such a standard clearly. Not only should the method 
to be followed be defined in detail, but the way in which the 
highly developed standards are to be expressed and put on 
record, should be continuously kept in mind. They must be 
clear and readily understandable so that new tentative standards 
can be measured against those already in force. 

Installing Ford Starters 

Until 1920 there was a great need for a starter for Ford 
cars, because the manufacturers had not included this item in 
their original equipment. As soon as the demand became great 
enough several manufacturers attempted to develop a self- 
starter that should be adapted to the car. One of the require- 
ments was to make the attachment coincide with the bolts and 
connections already found in the Ford car, so that the man 
installing the starter would have to make as few changes as 
possible. 

It was also necessary that the purchaser be able to install 
the starter himself. Otherwise it would hardly be possible to 
sell one to a man having no access to a well-organized garage. 
Moreover, wordy instructions such as might be used advan- 
tageously in a factory would in this connection be meaningless. 
After some study the chart shown in Figure 69 was devised 
and found to fulfil the requirements successfully. The chart 
takes up each part of the installation in detail, and the location 
of each part mentioned on the instruction card is marked on 
a corresponding diagram. 



316 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 










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SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 



3*7 



Applying Standards to Construction Work 

The way in which the most complex conditions may be 
simplified by the application of standardization was demon- 
strated on construction work. The general opinion at first 
was that, while it was possible to standardize industrial plants, 
because conditions in them were relatively stable with respect 
to machinery, equipment and organization, it would be impos- 
sible to standardize outside work, such as the construction of 
buildings, roads, and sewers. In outside work conditions 
change rapidly, so that they sometimes ceased to exist before 
standards could be set for them; often there is no space to keep 
materials on hand, freight delays even in the best of times pre- 
vent the obtaining of materials on time, labor is uncertain, and 
weather conditions affect materials as well as the amount of 
work which can be completed. 

In spite of these difficulties it has been proved by actual 
accomplishment on all classes of work that scientific manage- 
ment applies as readily to construction work as to industrial 
work. The construction man realizes most forcibly one fact 
which to his mind seems unsurmountable, and that is that he 
has no actual operating organization when he starts any piece 
of work. When a particular piece of work is finished the 
organization which has been developed for that job dwindles 
to a comparatively few people who put on the finishing touches. 
The answer to the construction man's fears is that the analyst 
whom he retains to develop scientific management should be 
a practical, experienced man, able to take full responsibility 
for carrying on the work if the conditions require it. This is 
not necessary, however, in an industrial plant, for the analyst 
works with an organization who are actually producing, and 
his work, therefore, requires only a changing of conditions, 
so it is not of such great moment if some change is not put into 
effect by the factories' organization immediately upon the 
recommendation of the analyst. 



3 i8 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

The first construction job on which the principles of scien- 
tific management were applied more or less intensively was in 
connection with the construction of a large concrete building 
in 1910. In concrete-construction work the cost of the form 
work, which is merely a temporary skeleton in which to cast 
the concrete, is generally the determining factor as to whether 
the contractor will make a profit or sustain a loss. The first 
endeavors, therefore, were concentrated on this feature, and 
the other parts of the work were handled as they previously 
had been. The results on the first job were most gratifying 
as shown in the comparison of unit costs given : 

Cost of Labor under 1 Cost of Labor under 

Operation Ordinary Methods Scientific Methods 

Making forms 2% cents per square foot 1% cents per square foot 
Erect and strip 

forms .... 6 4 

The work of the analyst started when the architect turned 
over the plans to the contractor. The first step was to have 
detailed sketches made of each form such as are shown in 
Figure 70. These sketches were complete, even to the deter- 
mination of the dimensions of every piece of lumber. From 
these sketches the exact bill of lumber was taken off so that the 
most economical widths and lengths could be purchased. This 
arrangement eliminated the random purchase of lumber. The 
sketches were then used by the carpenters for sawing all the 
lumber to the exact length and for putting the forms together. 

A method of marking the forms was worked out so that 
any ordinary unskilled laborer, under the direction of a gang 
boss, could tell the kind of form that was to be used by refer- 
ring to a key plan of the building. In this way the workman 
could carry the material from the benches where the forms 



1 Figures based on wages existing prior to 191 o. These figures include job expenses but 
not general overhead. 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 



319 



were made to the building site where it was put in place by the 
carpenters. This system eliminated the large loss caused by 



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DETAILS OF COLUMN FORMS 

FOR 

FIRST TWELVE BAYS 

NEW BLEACHERY BUILDING 



Figure 70. Standardized Plan Used in. the Construction of a Larger 
Concrete Blervchery 

highly paid carpenters doing useless or avoidable work, such 
as hunting around for some particular form which the foreman 
said had been made but which no one seemed able to find. The 
standardizing of the work in this manner arouses interest in all 



320 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

concerned and makes it possible to make the pay of the work- 
men commensurate with what they do and also eliminates the 
large loss due to the incompetence of workmen. 

Standardization of construction work not only for large 
buildings but also for smaller units, such as frame dwellings, 
was developed from the procedure just outlined. During a 
period of two years small dwellings aggregating a total value 
of several million dollars were erected by these same methods. 2 

The result of the standardization of construction work was 
a simplification which made it possible for production to be 
increased and the cost of construction to be reduced. 

Control 

Control is the second of the major phases of scientific 
management. 

The term "control" is used to describe the establishment of 
a mechanism by which the management takes over the detailed 
planning of production and regulates the flow of work. Control 
in industry necessitates exact knowledge as to the dates orders 
are to be processed and shipped, and the way in which they 
must be moved through the factory in order to keep the con- 
tract date. It necessitates information about the work ahead 
of each machine, the type and capacity of each machine, the 
raw materials required, and the number of employees needed 
to do the work, so that the work may be arranged in general 
and in detail, to meet customers' requirements and keep costs 
down to the minimum. 

With the establishment of centralized control the duty of 
planning the movement of the product is no longer distributed 
among the foremen of the various departments through which 
the goods will pass before they are shipped as a finished pro- 
duct, but is centralized in the planning department. 



•Appendix D for further details and results accomplished. 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 



321 



The planning department devotes its attention exclusively 
to correlating the work of departments and even of individuals. 
The detailed facts are placed at its disposal through standard- 
ization, so that this department is able to lay out the parts so 
that they will dovetail into the completed plan. Clerks carry 
out the routine of the plan formerly attended to by the fore- 
man. In consequence the factory functions as a unit. 

The contrary is true if a foreman alone does the planning. 
Even the capable foreman usually sees only his own needs, 
and 'kicks" for repairs, for material, and for help until he 
gets Jthem, although there may really be greater need for all 
these things in some other department. At its best, the result of 
lack of control is that one department inevitably perfects itself 
at the expense of the others. A manufacturing plant is similar 
to an army, and like an army, it needs its directing staff. 

Relation of Planning to Process Department 

The planning department and the process department are 
distinct, neither of which can exist for long without the; inti- 
mate co-operation and understanding of the other. The plan- 
ning department lays out the work in accordance with thei 
standards which have been developed, it directs the processing: 
of the product, and it follows up the results obtained by thei 
process department. The process department directs the con- 
version of the raw materials into the finished product, and in- 
so doing follows the established standards made out by the; 
planning department. This work is modified only as the actual 
shop conditions and materials necessitate a change. When 
such a need occurs the process department immediately takes 
up the matter with the planning department .so as to come to 
a mutual understanding on the way in which to handle the 
necessary changes. .In case of disagreement between the two 
departments the case is submitted to the manager of manu- 
facturing who settles the difficulty as an impartial judge. 



322 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 



ROUTE SHEET C 



.() _()<)- 



Bays 

F. O. No. 



Furnish Order No, 



Grade 

Color 

Machin 

Hung 

Dry 

Pull 



AM PM 
Hours 
AM PM 



From M M - MR Sk." 

BAY NO. pT 



From M M ... , .. MR S 1 ™" 

BAY NO £ 



From MM MR *"» 

BAY NO £ 



MRD 
MRU 



MRD 
MRU 



MRD 
MRU 



Dq In Do B«i Do Iki Do H« Do «« D« ha Do H.n Do 



TICKETS. 
ORDERS 
WRITTEN 



■«ti Do Vis Orati Do t. 



Figure 71. Regulation Route Sheet Used in Planning Department 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 323 

The manufacturing orders are received by the planning 
department which sees that all the necessary specifications or 
data are on the order before accepting it. The orders which 
are O K are analyzed for the required raw materials, for the 
method of processing, for the way to split the order into jobs 
which are of a size convenient to manufacture and so on. 
Route sheets as shown in Figure 71 are then prepared and are 
used by the planning department, first, for making up the 
proper work such as time tickets, stores issues, and so forth, 
and second, for keeping track and directing the sequence of 
the operations required in the manufacturing of the product. 
The planning board as shown in Figure 72 is an office mech- 
anism to facilitate carrying out the plans of the planning 
department. 

On this planning board a duplicate of the workman's time 
ticket is posted under the machine or workman's name, so that 
the work being done by each machine or employee can be seen 
at a glance. The job ahead of each machine or workman are 
also posted, so as to facilitate providing work well in advance 
or shifting the workman to another operation or department 
where a scarcity of labor exists. 

Proper Method of Planning Orders 

A dearth or an abundance of work is not long apt to be the 
case in a factory of moderate size provided the executives are 
aware of the situation. Such a dearth or abundance, however, 
does exist in many large companies operating a number of 
factories all of which are directed from some one central office. 
The reason for their not realizing the seriousness of the actual 
condition in any particular factory is due to the immense vol- 
ume of business done. In the case of a certain shoe company, 
for instance, if for any reason the raw materials did not show 
up for an order or if the particular lasts over which the shoe 
was built were not available when required, other orders 



3 2 4 



TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 




PRESENT 

ROUTE 

OF 

STOCK ORDER 



Case- 
Number 
Tags 




Writes 

Day 
Sheets 




Distributes 
Tag-Stubs 

and 
Day Sheets 



City. 

Factories 
Requisition 

Leather 
Speriliec 

on Tags 



27 



City 
Factories 
Receive 
Leather 

27 



Issue 

Leather 

Requisition 

ed by City 

Factories 

27 



. 


u 


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STOCK ORDER 




















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I 

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FACTORIES 


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SECTION 




H 






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18 


1Q 




BALANCE OF 
STORES SECTION 








"1 


1 




A 


-"If 


A3 " " 


1 






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*^|fi 


is 12 










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Stock 






















18 10 17 W 























Figure 73. Route of Stock Orders before Analys 




REVISED 

ROUTE 

OF 

STOCK ORDER 




MANAGER OF 
MANUFACTURING 



PUNNING 
DEPARTMENT 



SHOE 
FACTORIES 



STORES 

SECTION 



BALANCE 
STORES 
SECTION 




Figure 74. Route of Stock Orders after Analys 



SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 



325 



scheduled for a later date were pushed ahead to keep the 
machines and workmen busy. An investigation of the method 
used by this shoe company in planning the work brought to 
light some astounding conditions. The company, of course, 
realized some of these conditions, but not their seriousness or 
extent. The big difficulty confronting the analyst in this case 
was how to present his findings to the company so that they 
could conceive readily the difference between their present 
method of planning the orders to be manufactured, against the 
method he proposed, which would eliminate these serious con- 
ditions. Since the problem of planning is quite involved, be- 
cause of the many different grades and kinds of leather and 
findings that go into the different styles and grades of shoes 
to present it in the form of a report would mean nothing to 
most executives. After considerable study he devised the plan 
of charting the present and proposed routines. The chart of 
the present routine given in Figure 73 shows the whole story. 
The proposed routine as given in Figure 74 shows in compari- 
son the advantages of the new plan. 

Under the routine laid out in Figure 74, the copies of the 
manufacturing orders were not distributed broadcast, but only 
so many as were needed to determine from the stores records 
what materials were on hand. All copies of the orders made 
out at A went by way either of B 1 or B 2 and re-combined at 
C. This assured starting into the shop for manufacturing only 
those orders for which materials were actually available. This 
plan prevented congestion in the various departments as well 
as making possible to reduce greatly the quantity of leather 
and findings required in stores. 

Under the routine existing before analysis, shown in Figure 
73, there was no tie-in between the paper work in the office — 
marked A, C and D — and the various stores departments' 
activities — marked A, B and D — in getting out the materials 
on the orders and shipping them through the factory. 



326 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Functionalization 

A necessary corollary to control is functionalization — that 
is, the systematic distribution of activities among various per- 
sons. As stated in Chapter I, control involves the assumption 
of responsibility by the management, and functionalization in- 
volves the delegation of this responsibility through the proper 
channels. Through functionalization the organization is de- 
veloped so that it works as a unit in planning, supervising, and 
executing. 

The model organization chart given in Chapter I shows 
the main functions of a scientifically managed business and the 
way in which they are distributed. 

The department which has chief responsibility for standard- 
ization is the methods department. The department which 
has chief responsibility for the carrying out of control is the 
planning and control department. These two departments 
work in close relation, as already described, in order to get 
results without duplication of effort. Job standardization is 
dependent upon the maintenance of routine in the planning 
department and the process department because the employees 
cannot be expected to do the work in standard time unless con- 
ditions are maintained at standard. 

Co-ordination of the Phases 

It is by the co-ordination of these phases, standardization, 
control, and functionalization, that the industry is simplified 
to the point at which the work can be laid out with relation 
to the situation as a whole. Each phase is dependent on the 
others, and until all three are developed scientific management 
does not exist within the industry. It is by the development 
of industry through the co-ordination of the three that maxi- 
mum production is obtained under existing human and me- 
chanical conditions with the minimum cost and effort. 



CHAPTER XXII 

BALANCING MANUFACTURING AND SELLING 
ACTIVITIES 

Returns Dependent upon Market Outlet 

The large returns which result from job standardization 
are partly dependent upon the company's having orders for its 
merchandise. Increasing production is not of much advan- 
tage if the product cannot be sold. The lowered cost per unit 
produced is, however, a gain which may be utilized in either 
of two ways or, if the situation demands, in a combination of 
both — that is, it may be taken directly in the shape of a larger 
margin of profit or in the shape of a lower price, which also 
makes for larger profits because it stimulates demand. The 
profits from manufacturing are dependent upon the amount 
sold and the profits from selling are dependent upon economy 
of manufacturing. 

To sell the product is the main function of the sales divi- 
sion just as to manufacture the product is the main function 
of the manufacturing division. Both functions are equally 
important to the business, for neither can exist without the 
other. 

Although their mutual dependence is evident, it is not 
strange that each should think itself the important factor in 
the company's life and expect the other to realize this fact and 
to adjust its activities to meet the situation. The policy of the 
company on this point is due in many cases to the way in 
which the concern developed. If the financial head is at the 
head of the sales division he will naturally believe the sales end 
is the most important first, last, and always. If he is a prac- 

327 



328 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

tical manufacturer, he will probably believe the manufacturing 
end to be the most important. In reality, he is the one to 
recognize the equal importance of both and to encourage them 
to work together for the interest of the entire company. 

Why then is there such a universal strife between these 
two mutually concerned divisions? The answer is that each 
is working in the dark as to what the other division is really 
doing, so that each one is ready to saddle the blame for any 
complaint or trouble that arises on the other division. 

Necessity for Production Reports 

The only way to prevent strife is for both the sales and 
manufacturing divisions to plan action on full and accurate 
reports of production conditions and the factory situation and 
the markets. Otherwise it is impossible for them both to get 
together in the right spirit and discuss their differences and 
mutual difficulties and to formulate policies incidentally mak- 
ing the work of both easier but designed first and foremost 
for the financial advantage of the entire company. Without 
the aid of reports based on accurate data, contact can end 
only in recrimination, ill-feeling, with the result that each 
will go its own way as before. It is, therefore, through scien- 
tific management that this strife is prevented, because the de- 
velopment of scientific management has separated the chaff 
from the wheat and brought out the essentials of the situation. 

The proper use of the reports depends, of course, upon some 
systematic contact between representatives of the manufac- 
turing division and the sales division. Even this first step, 
however, the provision for regular conference, is far from 
being a universal practice. One concern, having its divisions 
in three states — the sales division at the market center in New 
York; the manufacturing division in a small town where 
taxes are low, and the financial and secretarial divisions in a 
large center in still another state — went so far as to take the 



MANUFACTURING AND SELLING ACTIVITIES 



329 



stand that all correspondence and information between sales 
and manufacturing were to pass through the executive office. 
This decision served to divorce the two so completely that the 
sales division, having no idea of the needs of the manufactur- 
ing, burdened it with many unnecessary and expensive changes 
and sometimes even made promises which it afterward was 
obliged to confess to customers could not be filled. 

Although contact helps to prevent either the sales or the 
manufacturing division from being at the mercy of the other, 
it does not, as has been pointed out, of itself co-ordinate their 
activities. Co-ordination of activities depends on accurate, de- 
pendable, and accessible information as to the factory situation. 
In order to understand the service to which such information 
must be put, the activities of the two divisions must be viewed 
from new angles. 

Selling the Plant Capacity 

The usual conception of the duty of the sales manager is 
the simple one already stated at the beginning of the chapter — 
i.e., it is the selling of the company product. From another 
point of view, however, his duties are not so simple. In sell- 
ing the company product, he is really selling the plant capacity 
for making the product. What is meant by "selling 
plant capacity" may be explained by a reference to busi- 
ness conditions during the war. In a great many factories 
during this period the entire product of the factory was spoken 
for months in advance and the salesmen could not continue to 
sell, not because they lacked selling ability or because they 
could not stimulate demand, but because the plant capacity 
was already used up. In some cases this was due to the limited 
amount of equipment, but probably in more cases it was due 
to lack of labor, or of material on which to work — all three.qf 
which factors limit plant capacity. During the war many 
salesmen realized for the first time that by selling standard 



330 TIME STUDY AND JOB ANALYSIS 

lines for which material was already on hand, or on which the 
amount of labor was less, instead of booming the more easily 
selling specialties — in other words, by paying attention to manu- 
facturing needs — they could in a sense actually increase the 
plant capacity. Furthermore, any unsold capacity or idle equip- 
ment is a drag on the rest of the plant. The total overhead, 
which remains the same, cannot be distributed over so many 
items, and therefore the cost per unit produced rises. In a 
competitive market, where the prices are practically fixed, loss 
is therefore sure to follow unsold capacity. Accordingly it 
may actually be cheaper to sell some line at what superficially 
appears a loss in order to avoid a greater loss from unsold 
capacity. It does not necessarily follow that when the largest 
volume of product is sold, the cost of manufacturing is least 
and the profits the largest. Rather is it true that when the 
entire plant capacity is sold, then the profits are greatest. 

Reports on Plant Capacity 

Looking at selling and manufacturing from this angle, it 
is clear that the reports on which plans are based should show 
the available plant capacity for each line produced. Such a 
report is given for each operation separately, and includes a 
statement of the amount and type of work that each type of 
machine has yet to do. 

The reports are based on the two essentials of scientific 
management — job standardization and control. The informa- 
tion which they furnish has been collected by the methods 
department and is a result of the standards set by time study 
and job analysis. The application of this information in the 
factory, at any given time, is a part of the process of control. 
The material from which the reports are still further con- 
densed is constantly used in the detailed planning done by the 
planning department. Little extra work is involved in drawing 
it off and presenting it to the sales manager. 



MANUFACTURING AND SELLING ACTIVITIES 



331 



When an order is received, the planning department, as 
stated, first breaks it into jobs that can be handled conveniently 
and then analyzes these into the processes or operations through 
which each job will pass. Each one of the operations is re- 
corded on a separate card or slip. For instance, in a textile- 
mill the operation of winding warp, winding filling, making 
warp, drawing the warp through the reed, and weaving, would 
each be on a separate card. The standard time required to per- 
form this operation with each variation in the character of the 
job would have been determined beforehand by job standard- 
ization. At this point the charts described in Chapter XX 
would be of service, because they show the proficiency of the 
factory and how much time (if any) to allow over and above 
the standard. 

From these two sources — the standard time charts and 
the proficiency charts — the planning department is able to 
record on each operation card not only the time the job is to 
be started on the first operation, but also the time it can be 
expected to come out of that stage ready for the next operation. 
The variable factors of the order are also recorded on the card. 
A file is kept in the form of a visible index, which shows all the 
jobs or orders planned for the operation, and which are usually 
classed according to the special type of machine or labor neces- 
sitated by the variables of the job. This file shows the plan- 
ning department which machines are to be free at a particular 
date. Because of this information the clerk can schedule the 
job to the particular machine fitted and at liberty to do the 
work. If the equipment of any type is overloaded or under- 
loaded, the visible index, with its cards for each job, shows 
the condition at once. 

Method of Making Report 

Semiweekly or, if this means too much work, at least 
weekly, the planning superintendent can go over the visible 



332 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS 

index and draw off from it a summary of the condition of 
work as regards the various operations, the dates on which 
machines of different types will be at liberty and the total hours 
of work ahead. He will also note the class of work on which 
the machines are occupied, since this will often mean that 
orders of the same class can be put in more easily — as, for 
example, if the loom has been producing a fine weave of cloth 
and is scheduled later for the same weave, it would be more 
economical to keep it going continuously on this weave. 

The sales manager and the manager of manufacturing in 
conference will go over this summary of the available plant 
capacity so that they may utilize and sell the plant capacity to 
the best advantage. 

Strengthening Sales Division Service 

The service of the sales division to its customers is 
strengthened by the resulting co-ordination of activities. It is 
enabled to make definite promise to its customers because it 
has definite production information Moreover it can reason- 
ably count upon keeping its promises. Good service on de- 
liveries is extremely important. Although a factory may 
have the best quality of goods to sell and the best force to sell 
them, failure to deliver at the specified time causes cancella- 
tions and loss of future sales. Giving this service depends on 
receiving accurate information from the manufacturing divi- 
sion as to shipment dates, and such accurate information can 
be determined as the result of detailed planning. The value 
to the customer in having a delivery date on which he can 
depend is very important. For instance, in an advertising 
campaign if the customer does not receive his printed matter 
on time, other contracts which he may have let for distributing 
it in certain issues of magazines may be upset. A case in 
point is that of a concern which made calendars. A calendar 
that reaches a client much after January i is about as inter- 



MANUFACTURING AND SELLING ACTIVITIES 



333 



esting as last week's newspaper. Yet in this particular concern 
the salesmen were always insisting on other orders being put 
in ahead, so that the calendars were never out on time. The 
manufacturing division accordingly sent reports to the sales 
division that gave a detailed statement as to the manufacturing 
situation, with the result that, although they made as many 
calendars as ever in 1920, for the first time in years they 
succeeded in getting all of them out before the middle of 
December. 

When delays are unavoidable the sales manager is notified 
and is also informed of the cause, as well as given another 
date for production with which he may appease the customer. 
By this means he is relieved of the embarrassment of explain- 
ing to inquiring customers the reason for the non-appearance 
of their goods on the promised date. 

The treatment of preference orders, which results from 
joint conferences on the manufacturing situation, is of great 
assistance to the sales manager. To put through every order 
as a "special" or a "rush" or even a "rush-rush" order means 
internal friction, broken promises, and dissatisfied customers. 
Nor is it easy, without definite figures, to convince the sales 
manager that any order to which he wishes to give preference 
must not displace work already laid ou*\ The reports, how- 
ever, show how the work is laid out, and whenever a request is 
made to give new work preference the manager of manufac- 
turing can point out to the sales manager exactly what would 
be displaced and the resulting cost. Then the sales manager 
may decide as to which work is most important. A reputation 
for uniformly prompt delivery dates is a much better sales card 
than promises of special favors which often cannot be kept. 

Increasing Economy of Manufacturing 

This rational method of rushing orders only after consider- 
ation of the need is a great relief to the manufacturing division. 



334 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS 

Without such a method it is constantly required to make 
changes in plans, speed up employees, and sometimes even to 
take the half -completed product from the machine in order 
to make way for preference work. The duty of the manu- 
facturing division is to utilize to the full actual and potential 
plant capacity, and this it can do only by having the co-opera- 
tion of the sales division. 

With an organized method the manufacturing division 
is able to plan to handle orders more quickly. First of all the 
orders are reported to it as soon as they are received. Further- 
more it is furnished with the desired date of delivery. The 
neglect of the sales division to specify the date often causes 
misunderstanding. In one case much hard feeling arose be- 
tween a member of the sales division and the planning super- 
intendent over the delay of a certain order. Investigation 
showed that the order had been sent into the factory with no 
time limit for delivery marked on it. From that time until 
three weeks later, when it had been put into process, over 
thirty "rush" orders came in and were given preference over 
the delayed order. Moreover with standardized methods the 
plans of the manager of manufacturing are not subject to so 
many and to such elaborate alterations if there is a conference 
relative to the suggested changes with the sales manager. At 
that time a report of the factory situation can be given to him 
in which the expense involved in any suggested change will be 
made clear. He is even able, from his knowledge of the date 
on which equipment will be free, to make requests to the sales 
manager for orders which can be made on that equipment. 

By no means the least important of the benefits to both 
divisions is the establishment of friendly relations. 

Estimating Cost of Orders 

Another way in which the data compiled through job 
standardization should be used to balance the activities of the 



MANUFACTURING AND SELLING ACTIVITIES 



335 



manufacturing and selling divisions is in figuring estimates 
on the cost of orders. Data used for determining standards 
which the employees actually accomplish day in and day out 
may be put into tabular form for estimating purposes. In 
one case, where this was done at the solicitation of the sales 
division, it served as the first step in interesting that division 
in the work done by the manufacturing division. As a result 
the sales manager saw the value of changing some of the 
methods of figuring which had been in vogue for years and 
which were naturally based on general averages and were not 
so flexible or accurate as the data from the new source. Two 
great advantages accrue from figuring estimates on the data 
that is furnished by the manufacturing division and found by 
job standardization. The figures based on job standardization 
are absolutely dependable and accurate. The figures on which 
sales estimates are usually based have been reached by some 
one who at some time made a good guess. The method fol- 
lowed is to take all the machines as well as the jobs of a similar 
type and bring them under a single class, regardless of varia- 
tions in the character of jobs. Then one estimate is struck 
which is used for all jobs of this class. As a result a large 
margin of profit has to be allowed over and above this in- 
definite figure, whereas with accurate figures based on careful 
study and showing the actual cost of variations in orders it 
is possible for the sales manager to give much closer estimates, 
often thereby underbidding competitors. Another advantage 
is that if the estimates are figured on a manufacturing basis 
a close check is furnished between estimated and actual cost 
of performance. It is accordingly easy to find where orders 
have been taken on at a loss and to avoid repeating the mistake. 

Determining Company Policies 

The reports given the sales division by the manufacturing 
division are not only valuable in making detailed plans from 



336 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS 

day to day and from week to week, but in determining broad 
policies of the company. The sales and manufacturing man- 
agers together can work out measures suited to their mutual 
needs which they may submit to the general manager for ap- 
proval. These include decisions as to maximum and minimum 
quantities of stock to be kept on hand, specialties to push, possi- 
bilities of development for new lines of product, and the ad- 
visability of standardizing the product, so as to reduce costly 
variations in style. Thus there are no longer two opposing 
points of view — the one, that the manufacturing division shall 
manufacture what the sales division can sell, and the other, 
that the sales division shall sell what the manufacturing divi- 
sion can manufacture. Instead the two are merged into one 
because of the company policy which is formulated to help 
the manufacturing division utilize the full plant capacity and 
to help the sales division sell the full plant capacity, with the 
single aim of the greatest economy and the largest profit to 
the business. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

JOB STANDARDIZATION AS A BASIS FOR 
LABOR MEDIATION 

A "Solution" of Labor Troubles 

Many manufacturers are afraid of job standardization as 
the cause of labor troubles. Though such an idea will be new 
to some people, the fact is that job standardization contributes 
largely toward the solution of labor troubles. Job standardiza- 
tion has really proved itself to be the best possible basis for im- 
provement of industrial relations; for labor troubles, like 
every other trouble, can be solved only by analysis and study 
of the elements entering into the situation. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that there are no final solutions to the labor 
problem. All that can be done whether one likes it or not, 
is to meet that. phase of the problem which concerns us most 
urgently at the moment 

The Labor Situation 

At present the situation is somewhat as follows : The em- 
ployer who is paying for labor time suspects that what he is 
paying for is being delivered only in part; because he has no 
means of checking up these doubts he is unwilling to pay a cent 
more than he is forced into paying. Exactly the same is true 
of the employee. He suspects that he is being given under- 
weight and so makes return in kind. It is like an exchange 
carried on in the dark, in which each one offers the other 
scamped goods for what he believes will prove on trial to be 
scamped goods. The exchange is carried on in equal igno- 
rance, and in the end, as at the beginning, both parties remain 
as much in doubt as ever as to the justice of their bickerings. 
22 337 



338 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS 

The Three Necessities 

To meet and overcome such a complication three things are 
necessary : 

i. To get at the facts. 

2. To establish channels of contact, so that both employer 

and employee are put in possession of such facts as 
are pertinent. 

3. To find a third party whose position allows him to get 

at the facts and without prejudice present them to 
both sides. 

Both the second and third points are dependent upon the 
first, that is, getting at the facts. As the situation now stands, 
at best only one side is informed on any one point. On the one 
hand the employees have more information as to the amount 
of work they are doing, on the other hand the employer has 
more information as to the situation from the financial point 
of view. Neither can be said to have exact data even on one of 
these two factors. Since both factors, the output and the finan- 
cial condition, are involved in almost all questions at issue, 
both sides are able only to* guess at the factor on which they 
are uninformed. The detail facts on the work are in reality as 
unknown to both as is the situation as a whole. In any wage 
dispute between the employer and the employees there are two 
main issues. The first is the obvious one, the amount of re- 
muneration to be paid. The second, inextricably mixed up 
with the first in the mind of the man on the street, is the 
amount to be produced. While it is inevitable that the two 
will be confused as long as no one knows the facts about either, 
it is quite possible to get the facts at least on the second issue, 
i.e., the amount to be produced. The method of getting these 
facts has been described as the work of job standardization. 

The first issue, the amount to be paid, has not been dealt 
with scientifically in the same way. There is still room for 



LABOR MEDIATION 339 

opinion, judgment and compromise. The only hope, however, 
of reaching a settlement which has any claim to justice and any 
elements of permanence is to base opinion, judgment and com- 
promise upon the information found concerning the amount 
to be produced. Thus the first great essential in the industrial 
situation is dependent upon job standardization. 

Channels of Contact 

No settlement making for co-operation can be realized 
unless both sides have the necessary information. This is true 
not only in the case of an actual dispute, but also in the daily 
conduct of the industry. 

Capital must know, not by rule of thumb, but with scientific 
finality, the facts .that are indispensable to a just administering 
of its part of the obligation. Labor on its side must be as 
thoroughly informed of the facts which it needs to know and 
for the lack of which knowledge it falls back on accusations, 
recriminations and permanent suspicion. The situation will 
be met only when both sides have that complete assurance 
which comes from a knowledge that rock-bottom facts are 
available to all who are vitally concerned. 

The employer with little more than his financial idea about 
the situation cannot overcome the difficulty. Neither can the 
best energies of the employee be enlisted unless he knows that 
the facts he has are trustworthy. Any plan, if it is not exe- 
cuted in such a way as to enlist the energies of everyone con- 
cerned will surely be a partial failure and perhaps a total one. 
If the employees are convinced or are suspicious that job stand- 
ardization is being imposed on them in order to take away their 
jobs or to make machines of them, or if the foreman and other 
executives feels that their rights are being encroached upon, the 
plan becomes a liability instead of being an asset. In order to 
win their co-operation a full explanation should be given to all 
the members of the organization, from the superintendent to 



340 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS 

the workmen. One result of making the whole organization a 
party to the work is that the facts are put in the possession 
of both sides. 

Mutual co-operation is brought about and maintained by 
the establishment of channels of contact. These may be in- 
formal or formal. Both kinds have been tried by employers, 
in some cases with considerable success in overcoming sus- 
picion and hostility on the part of the employees. Neither 
method can be used as an agency for intelligent co-opera- 
tion, however, unless there is first some intelligent basis for 
co-operation in place of mutual ignorance. 

Informal Contact 

Most of the informal channels by which information is 
brought quickly to the employees are, through necessity, pro- 
vided by the employer, and thus are dependent upon the 
degree of intelligence and the progressive attitude which the 
employer assumes toward the situation. Sometimes courses 
are instituted for the employees in which they are taught 
some of the principles and fundamentals of business in gen- 
eral and their business in particular. The usual channel of 
this sort is a purely personal one. A man in the manage- 
ment in whom the employees have faith and who works closely 
with them can talk with them and give any information de- 
sired. Such a man brings the employees into contact with the 
ideas of the management and the management into contact 
with the ideas of the employees. 

Formal Contact 

In using the formal channels of contact the employer again 
usually takes the initiative ; but if properly planned these formal 
channels function more or less independently of him. They 
provide a mechanism that gives the employees representation 
in the councils of the management. This mechanism may 



LABOR MEDIATION 



341 



have the form of the shop committee or works councils (which 
may or may not be unionized) and the plan, modeled on the 
lines of the United States Government, sometimes termed 
"industrial democracy." Under the former and less elaborate 
plan the employees elect representatives who meet in confer- 
ence with representatives of the employers, to thresh out griev- 
ances, wages, conditions, bonus, and manufacturing problems. 
Special committees and sub-committees are often appointed or 
elected to attend to special problems. 

Under the United States government plan, the house of 
representatives is elected by the employees, a certain number 
from each department according to the size, the senate is 
made up of executives, while the cabinet is composed of offi- 
cers of the company and those in supreme control. This plan 
is open to considerable modification in practice. 

Employee Representation Plan 

The United States government plan has been adapted by 
the Printz-Biederman Company to fit its conditions. In place 
of the senate, for instance, a planning board composed of rep- 
resentatives of each of the major divisions of the plant acts 
for the management. The planning board has proved capable 
of acting more quickly, decisively, and efficiently than the 
senate. 

The members of the house of representatives are elected 
from the departments, one to every 20 employees. There are 
from 30 to 40 members, representing about 600 employees. 
Regular meetings of the house are held on company time, once 
a week between 10 and 11 o'clock. An important provision, 
which should always be in effect where there is to be any 
real "democracy," is that the house of representatives is entitled 
to hold meetings alone. The cabinet, planning board, and 
betterment committee may be present in the house of represen- 
tative only by permission. 



342 . TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS 

"The function of this House of Representatives shall be to 
study and recommend such action as shall be concerned with 
the production of good coats and suits at the lowest possible 
cost; the payment of highest profits, salaries and wages con- 
sistent with competitive ability and betterment of social and 
physical conditions among the people of the Printz-Biederman 
Company." 

Regular committees elected by the house of representatives 
are : a betterment committee, a wage committee, and a board 
of reviews. 

The betterment committee looks after all complaints cover- 
ing social and physical conditions of the employees. 

The wage committee determines, in agreement with the 
management, what minimum 'base rates shall be paid and, 
when such changes have not been satisfactorily adjusted by 
the foreman or superintendents, refers individual applicants 
for changes in rates to the management. 

The board of reviews is composed of two members of the 
management, chosen by it, and two representatives of the em- 
ployees chosen by the house of representatives. Its function 
is to consider all cases of discharge referred to it. If the 
testimony proves that the applicant has violated a rule affecting 
the standards of discipline or standards of production, or that 
he has been dishonest, he cannot be reinstated. Otherwise 
the findings of the board are final. 

A provision is made that in case the house of representa- 
tives and the management cannot come to an agreement on 
some question and have exhausted every means of settlement 
provided for in the constitution, they shall choose a person 
satisfactory to both to arbitrate the question. 

The plan, the management states : ". . . is designed to 
give our workers an opportunity to legislate together with the 
management on all matters connected with their work, such as 
wages, hours, and conditions of employment." 



LABOR MEDIATION 



343 



Such means and methods do not of themselves provide 
either side with the essential facts, but, the facts being known, 
they do make for co-operation. 

Mediation 

The third step in establishing co-operation is the employ- 
ment of a third person who can consider the facts without 
personal bias or prejudice in favor of either side. This man 
must have the confidence of both sides. 

On various occasions, indeed, capital and labor have been 
willing to make use of conciliation and arbitration, both of 
which involved submitting differences to an authorized board 
or person selected from the outside. The difference between 
conciliation and arbitration is that in the case of conciliation, 
no decision reached is binding on the disputants, whereas in 
the case of arbitration the decision has a binding force. Boards 
of conciliation and arbitration were organized during the war 
by the local, state and federal authorities to prevent losses re- 
sulting from long-drawn-out struggles. Prominent individuals 
were even asked to pass upon the merits of an issue. Now that 
the war is over employers and employees are as far apart as 
they dare be in refusing to arbitrate. In spite of the cost 
they prefer to fight out the issue, for the reason that they both 
have suffered from the defects of arbitration as commonly em- 
ployed. 

Defects of Customary Arbitration 

The reason that conciliation and arbitration have proved 
inadequate is that the position of the third party has been a 
.false one. In the first place he is usually called in to arbitrate 
at a date when the bickerings have already reached the point 
of open conflict and neither side is in a mood to compromise. 
In the second place he has no way of being informed on the 
actual situation. To examine the problem thoroughly would 



344 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS 

take months, or perhaps years, and no one is willing to wait 
so long, as was demonstrated in the outlaw strikes by the rail- 
road brotherhoods in 1920. The arbitrator is moreover obliged 
to sift and weigh such evidence as he is given, which means 
that he must be an exceptional man. He usually has no way of 
checking the evidence, because he rarely knows the difficulties 
of the particular industry and plan, but only the difficulties of 
industry in general. He is, accordingly, obliged to make a 
superficial decision, which may, or may not, reach the sore 
spots. If his decision is not final, and he is acting only as a 
conciliator, the fact that both sides are thoroughly aroused 
before he is called in makes it unlikely that the side to which his 
findings appear less favorable will be ruled by it. Even if the 
agreement provides that his decision is final, any decision not 
based on the facts of the situation will serve only to postpone 
open conflict for the time being. While conciliation and arbi- 
tration cannot be considered as anything more than makeshifts 
and are in no sense substitutes for co-operation, they do at 
least make clear this much :• the necessity for a third party, ac- 
ceptable to both capital and labor, who can mediate their diffi- 
culties by bringing out the facts. 

The Analyst as Mediator 

The logical third party for mediation to call upon is the 
one who is able to present the facts on which decision must be 
based. That person is the analyst. In a sense he is the indus- 
trial mediator, working in conjunction with those immediately 
concerned. 

There have been, however, arguments against the use of 
such a mediator, for capital has been accused, and, in some 
cases rightly, of abusing technical information submitted to 
it by experts in its employ. Capital itself, moreover, has felt 
that the information furnished by the industrial engineer was 
in many cases, largely a mass of involved detail. 



LABOR MEDIATION 



345 



Now, however, that the technique of sciences is being used 
increasingly, the qualifications of the analyst are becoming 
more and more clear. 

He is, first of all possessed of the chief requisite needed 
by both sides ; a complete and detailed knowledge of the facts. 
Through job standardization he knows exactly what amount 
the average skilled employee can be expected to produce ; he is 
also informed on the market rates and the relative requirements 
of the various operations. 

Unlike the ordinary arbitrator, he is not obliged to make 
a special investigation in order to ascertain the facts, because 
he already has them in hand. At a time when delay is un- 
fortunate, such a resource diminishes losses to employees in 
wages by shortening the period of open conflict. Being in 
possession of the facts, he is able to furnish them 
before the clash comes, and, as a result, he is often in a position 
to act as conciliator. 

The type of man needed in job standardization is also 
the type of man fitted to undertake the duties of mediator. 
He must be respected by employers and employees, because 
his work is checked up by both. He must be ready at all times 
to listen to both sides, and he must have shown himself to be 
open-minded. 

Neutrality of Analyst 

Under some conditions an objection may be raised by the 
employees to the analyst in the role of mediator, in that he 
is not neutral. This is often true if he is employed directly 
by the concern and his job is thus dependent on the fact of 
his standing in well with the employer. Where the analyst 
is the representative of a firm of consulting engineers in indus- 
trial management, this objection has not been raised, even 
though the firm is retained by the management. The firm, 
however, must be one with a reputation over many years of 



346 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS 

practice of fair dealings with both capital and labor in order 
to be accepted by them as a neutral third party. 

In one or two instances the analyst has actually been 
jointly employed. 

The analyst who is acting as mediator carries on his usual 
duties in the factory in the same way as has been described. 
In the course of his daily routine he acquires the information 
which is so essential to his duties as mediator. The fact that 
he is finding a just balance between the various operations, 
that he is helping to standardize the work in such a way that 
he is making it possible for the employer to give additional 
pay for increased production resulting from standardized 
efforts, reduces the likelihood of trouble over wages and condi- 
tions of work. Whenever there is any dissatisfaction or dis- 
pute over the base rates, or over any rates, or over payments 
for any operation, the employer or employee may call on him 
for information. 

In the case of a serious dispute the duties of the analyst 
include, in addition to furnishing information, a suggestion for 
settlement based on his knowledge of the facts at issue. 

If the analyst can reveal to each side the point of view of 
the other side, and at the same time can place before both all 
the information concerning the question at issue, he succeeds 
in casting some light on what has hitherto been a struggle in 
the dark. Both capital and labor are thus placed in a position 
in which they are able and willing to consider the settlement 
he proposes, or any modification of a settlement which they 
can agree upon, on the basis of mutual understanding in the 
place of mutual suspicion. 

Examples of Analyst as Mediator 

An interesting example of the work of the analyst as 
mediator occurred in 191 6 in connection with the New York 
dress and waist industry where job standardization was intro- 



LABOR MEDIATION 



347 



duced to replace an economically devastating warfare. The 
late Robert G. Valentine, serving as director of a board of 
protocol standards succeeded in having job standardization 
introduced, so that decisions could be based on exact findings. 

The important problem before the board concerned wages. 
An hourly wage of 35 cents for the average employee had been 
agreed upon, but the work was almost entirely on a piece-rate 
basis, and the relation between thousands of styles of garments, 
the different kinds of materials used, the unskilled and the 
skilled employee, and the various degrees of skill called for by 
different divisions of the labor of garment making, were all 
points left to the board. Piece rates had formerly been set by 
means of an elaborate system of shop tests, which resulted in 
innumerable disputes and in rates which were disproportion- 
ate. In one instance, after analysis, the manager admitted the 
insufficiency of the rate and raised it, the raise being retroactive 
to the agreement. In another instance the union, convinced 
that the rate was too high, paid the difference between the sum 
the manufacturer had paid in wages, at $4.20 a dozen waists, 
and the sum he should have paid at the revised rate of $3.85 
a dozen waists, the sum amounting to several hundred dollars. 
A union member was one of the "assistants" working under 
the direction of the analyst. 

On this spirit of fairness it was possible for the representa- 
tives of the manufacturers and of the unions to meet with the 
director of the board of protocol standards, recognize the 
definite conclusions drawn from job standardization, and agree 
upon piece rates on the basis of the data furnished. 

The building up of operations from the elements was like 
the building up of thousands of words from the twenty-six 
letters of the alphabet, and created a language in which the 
workers and manufacturers could talk intelligently. 

In this case collective bargaining, on the one hand, was not 
done away with, and on the other, time study and job analysis 



348 TIME STUDIES AND JOB ANALYSIS 

and its results were not forced upon the employees by the 
management. The basic wage rate was still a matter for 
collective bargaining. But the original bargain once struck 
along broad lines, the details of the settlement were left to 
job standardization, carried out under the supervision and with 
the co-operation of both sides. Although in this particular 
case further action was stopped, it was not from the inade- 
quacy of job standardization but from a series of outside and 
highly conflicting interests. 

It seems not unlikely that among the industrial changes in 
the future will be the use of job standardization in individual 
manufacturing plants, with labor co-operating with the man- 
agement and sharing the control, much along the lines devel- 
oped by Mr. Valentine. 

Another arrangement somewhat resembling the union 
agreement made at the instigation of Mr. Valentine is that of a 
committee for the introduction of job standardization to help 
avoid labor complications. This committee, organized in a 
printing concern, consists of the labor manager, who repre- 
sents the company, one of the union workmen, who represents 
the shop, and the analyst, who represents the neutral party by 
being the representative of an outside industrial engineering 
firm. These three handle the problems that come up, because 
they have the backing of both sides, and because all who are 
interested know what is going on and the nature of the object 
to be attained. 

Employee representation, although not including the prin- 
ciple of collective bargaining, provides for arrangements 
along similar lines. While it would be most unlikely that the 
employees would have sufficient solidarity to pool their re- 
sources and combine to employ experts jointly with the man- 
agement, there is provided, nevertheless, an opportunity for 
the analyst to act in the role of mediator. Because the em- 
ployees have every chance to make their voice heard in the 



LABOR MEDIATION 



349 



conduct of the industry as well as every chance of knowing 
that the management is fair, they are ready even in disputed 
cases to accept the decisions of the analyst. 

Conclusion 

Democratic organizations, whatever the type, under which 
both sides are attempting to deal together with industrial prob- 
lems, are the ideal bodies to undertake job standardization. 
They are endeavoring to minimize the industrial struggle, but 
they are still in the dark. By furnishing the facts on the very 
problems with which they are wrestling, job standardization 
makes it possible to avoid the waste and misery of industrial 
conflict. At the same time, by adding to the joint effectiveness 
of labor and capital in production, it increases the total fund 
available for wages and profit. 



APPENDIX A 

REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER 

Description of Operation 

As shown in Figure 75, the paper to be reeled, trimmed 
on both edges, and inspected, comes in large rolls which are 
placed on the bottom of the machine. The loose end is then 
threaded over guide rolls and circular knives at the top and 
back of the machine, and brought forward to the winding 
shaft at the top and front of the machine. In th^. finished 
roll there are usually 2,000 sheets 20 inches long (3,333 linear 
feet) with an average width of 26 inches. As the paper is 
wound on the finished roll, the operator tears out and throws 
away imperfect paper and glues the two good ends together 
in what is termed a splice. The finished rolls are taken from 
the machines, wrapped and delivered to the packing room. 

The job analysis indicated the following possibilities for 
improvements : 

1. Increase in production from machines due to improved 

methods saving time and labor with a bonus incen- 
tive and graphical competitive accomplishment 
charts. 

2. Saving in waste of material on machines due to train- 

ing employees and making bonus earned partly de- 
pendent on care in taking out waste. 

3. Saving in waste of time on machines caused by absence 

of operators, break-downs, and daily and weekly 
cleaning of machines. This saving would be gained 
by better planning, mechanical inspection, and by 
doing the cleaning out of hours. 
35i 



352 



APPENDIX A 




REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER 



353 



4. Improved quality by machine operators due to training 

and to making bonus earned dependent on care in 
taking out bad paper, making good splices, and 
trimming. 

5. Saving in waste of material and time on auxiliary oper- 

ations handling rolls going to and from the machines, 
and in wrapping and trucking the rolls out of the 
department. This saving would be gained by devel- 
oping two special trucks, one for feed rolls and one 
for finished rolls, changing the planning, and control 
routine, and by putting the auxiliary men on bonus. 

6. Saving of departmental clerk due to changing the plan- 

ning and control routine and to keeping the lots of 
paper separate by means of the new trucks. 

Changes in Methods and Equipment 

Under the unstandardized conditions the machines were 
shut down while the operator, if a girl, waited for a man, 
frequently the operator of another machine, to take the shaft 
with the finished roll from the machine, pull the shaft out of 
the roll, put an empty strawboard core on the shaft, and re- 
place it in the machine. Of the two collars used on the finished 
roll-shaft to guide the paper (see Figure 75) the left-hand one 
was never clamped in final position until several feet of paper 
had been wound on the core to indicate the exact width of the 
sheet. 

The adjustment when made necessitated a special shut 
down. These delays were cut down by providing two extra 
finished roll shafts for each machine and a man for each three 
machines to do all the work, except actual lifting from and 
onto the machine, while the machines were running. The 
collar adjustment was made before the shaft was put on the 
machine by providing measuring sticks equal in length to the 
width of the paper. 



354 



APPENDIX A 



Similarly, it was the custom to change the feed roll by- 
taking out the shaft with the empty core, pulling off the core, 
putting on a new roll and finally putting the shaft and roll 
back on the machine. After the roll was in the machine a 
heavy paper wrapper was taken off. These delays were cut 
down by providing an extra shaft so that a roll stood ready 
to go into the machine at all times. The wrapper was removed 
ahead of time and later, when the special trucks (see Figure 
76) were available for keeping the paper off the floor, it was 
discontinued altogether. 

A considerable improvement in making splices was effected. 
Formerly a strip of bad paper was torn or cut out, leaving 
uneven ends. Before splicing both ends were carefully folded, 
creased and torn off to leave a smooth square end. Glue was 
then "painted" on one end, the other end lapped over and 
rubbed down. The girls were taught to cut out the bad paper 
by cutting with one stroke of the knife at each end in such a 
way as to leave the end good enough for a splice. Tests proved 
also that the right amount of glue could be applied by drawing 
the brush once across the paper, and that the rubbing could be 
reduced to one firm stroke of the hand. 

Formerly a paper band was wrapped around each finished 
roll, glued, and certain information written on it by the em- 
ployees before the roll was taken from the machines. Gummed 
labels, furnished with information partly filled in by the plan- 
ning department, were substituted. Incidentally this device 
cut down clerical work formerly done by the departmental 
clerk. Information concerning the rolls handled was formerly 
written on three separate tickets by the employee. Two of 
these were cut out and the information formerly posted on 
three is put on one. 

Chairs with a special pigeon-hole and rack for the girls 
were devised which enabled them to store samples, tags and 
strawboard cores in the chair instead of walking across an 



REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER 



35: 




356 



APPENDIX A 



aisk where they were placed formerly. These chairs were also 
provided with backs which were of some help to the girls. 

The truck on which the finished rolls are placed, shown in 
Figure JJ, was designed to save rehandling of rolls through 
keeping each customer's orders together. In this way each 
order worked upon can be handled and delivered to the packer 
separately, thus avoiding sorting and checking of rolls. The 
truckers had previously gone about the room with a smaller 
truck selecting rolls here and there according to customer's ' 
orders and placing them on the floor convenient to the sealers 
who put a heavy wrapping paper around each roll and sealed 
this so as to keep the roll of paper from getting damaged. 
The sealers sealed the rolls and put them back on the floor, j 
Later a trucker would pick them up and after they had been 
checked by a clerk they were taken to the packing room. With 
the new truck the 5 rolls are moved directly from the machine 
to the wrapper and left on the truck. The wrapper seals 
them and puts them on a truck holding two 5-roll units, 10 
rolls in all, on the opposite side of his bench. This truck- 
load is then moved to the packer who signs for them — which 
means that the rolls have been received by the packing room. 
The work of the sealer and trucker is cut down and clerical 
checking is entirely eliminated. 

The feed-roll truck shown in Figure JJ was designed to 
receive the feed roll as it is dropped out of the machine. It 
was also designed for carrying the roll to the reeling depart- 
ment ; and to contain the roll while it was waiting to be reeled. 
Furthermore it was designed so that it might be pushed directly 
under the reeling machines in such a way that the roll (with 
the shaft previously put in place) could be pushed over the 
edge and dropped into place with the shafts resting in the 
bearings. Through the use of this truck, time is saved for the 
tender because he no longer has to rehandle rolls on the ordin- 
ary baggage truck — in fact, his work with the new truck is 



REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER 



357 




358 



APPENDIX A 



much easier. Considerable waste is prevented because each 
roll is left on trucks which are wide and long enough to pre- 
vent collisions between the roll and other rolls on trucks. Such 
a precaution lessens the risk of tearing the edges of the paper. 

A variable speed motor designed under the direction of the 
company superintendent and master mechanic was an especially 
ingenious device. The machine was orginally driven by a 
belt to the shaft carrying the finished roll. This gave the shaft 
a uniform speed in revolutions per minute, so, of course, the 
speed of the paper in feet per minute increased as the size of 
the finished roll increased in diameter from 2 to 12 inches. 
Under the new plan the handle of the rheostat which controls 
the speed of the motor is connected with the sheet counter 
that rides on the finished roll. As the roll gets larger the counter 
is lifted higher and higher and the rheostat handle is pushed 
along over the resistance contacts in such a way that the revo- 
lutions per minute of the finished roll-shaft vary, whereas the 
linear feet of paper reeled per minute is practically uniform 
from the start to finish. The speed selected is the maximum 
reached with the old equipment. 

The effect of the increased speed on production was inter- 
esting. Records indicated that the mere installation of the 
motor showed no increase in output as a result of the 59.1 
per cent increase in speed. This condition was entirely logical. 
In the first place, the actual running time of the machines was 
only 25 per cent — the balance of 75 per cent being used for 
changing rolls and other operations. In the second place, the 
new speed was greater than formerly so that bad paper was 
wound into the finished roll before the girl, who was not 
accustomed to this greater speed, could stop the machine. The 
extra time needed to unwind and wind up by hand, off-set the 
increase in speed. When, however, the standardized bonus 
system was introduced for the machine operators, the propor- 
tion of running time was increased, and the money incentive, 



REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER 359 

based on work turned out, kept the girls wide enough awake 
to stop the machine promptly when bad paper came along. The 
method of stopping was much improved also. 

Of the other improvements, the spring clip for the counter 
enables the operator, when splicing or changing rolls, to push 
the counter out of the way with one hand instead of using 
both hands as it formerly was necessary to do when the counter 
was hung upon a hook that swung from the ceiling. 

A simple device was also developed for threading the 
paper into the machine. A curved piece of galvanized iron 
was placed on the back of the machine in such a way that the 
girl, in threading the paper through the machine, pushed the 
paper from her under the revolving knives into the semi-circle- 
shaped curve of the sheet of iron. The end of the paper 
then automatically reversed its direction and came forward 
over the knives to the front of the machine. Formerly it had 
been necessary to push the paper back under the knives and 
then walk to the back of the machine and push it forward over 
the knives. 

Estimated Increase in Output 

After several months of time-study work, an estimate of 
the increase in output on the reeling machines was made and 
the total itemized and credited to the various causes as follows : 

Per Cent 
of Old 
, Annual 
Output 
Tender to change rolls and extra shafts : 

Feed Roll 8.75 

Finished Roll 15.46 

Elimination of wrapper on feed roll due to special 

truck , 6.65 

Preparation of glue and oiling machines 8.57 

Ends split for splices instead of folded and torn 5.52 



3<5° 



APPENDIX A 

Cleaning after hours by janitor 11.18 

Band on finished roll replaced by gummed label 4.87 

Labels prepared in planning department 0.74 

Revised job ticket 1.09 

Reduction in samples due to standardization 5.95 

Samples and tags stored in operators' bench instead of 

across an aisle 1.02 

Variable speed motor giving a uniform speed 59.1% 

greater than previous average speed 8.67 

Decreased down time due to better planning 12.10 

Spring clip for counter instead of hook 1.14 

Automatic return for threading paper through the 

machine 0.97 



Total annual increase due to improved methods .... 92.68 
Increase due to extra effort of the operators and to 

elimination of miscellaneous delays 7 l -Z 2 



Total annual increase in output 164.0% 

It was necessary to itemize the saving in this way because 
the proposed changes in methods were radical in some cases 
and appeared to the foreman and company officials to involve 
a possible deterioration in quality. Under day-work conditions 
these changes would undoubtedly have encouraged slackness 
and a deterioration in quality, but under bonus conditions with 
each employee paid practically in proportion to her interest 
in her work the changes could be made with no danger what- 
ever to quality. The changes listed were actually made. 

Outline of Plan of Bonus Payments 

In laying out a method of paying bonuses it was necessary 
to pay strictly in proportion to the effort of the employee. The 
effort of the employee, however, was in no sense measured by 
the amount of paper used or finished. It was necessary to 
take into account the effort of stopping the machine, taking 



REELING AND INSPECTING COATED PAPER 



361 



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362 APPENDIX A 

out waste, making splices, and matching samples whenever 
the paper was not continuously in the feed roll. 

Figure 78 shows the many savings under various conditions 
due to this bonus installation. Columns (1), (2), (3), and 
(4) show the cost for labor plus overhead with the work 
being done under the conditions before job standardization 
was undertaken. Columns (5), (6), (7), and (8) show the 
cost after job analysis has been completed. Columns (1) and 
(5), (2) and (6), (3) and (7), and (4) and (8) are figured 
on the same quantity of output. The figured savings per year 
vary from $4,974, with the output corresponding to the 
average produced between 1918 and 1919, to $26,419, if the 
full output of the machines can be disposed of by the sales 
department. The unit cost per ream of 500 sheets of paper 
with the machines running full is $.086 against $.12 with a 
small output. 



APPENDIX B 

ECONOMIES OBTAINED IN PAPER-MAKING 

The operation of a paper machine involves great expense 
and presupposes considerable skill on the part of the operator. 
Because of the skill required and the effect of even slight varia- 
tions on the finished paper that result from mishandling the 
machine, executives of paper-mills are loath to inaugurate any 
standardizing processes. In one mill, however, the finishing 
processes were standardized, and in this way was made possible 
the studying of the paper-making machinery itself. 

It was found that the increase in production of a paper 
machine might be accomplished in three ways : 

i. By increasing the speed of the machine. 

2. By making the sheet of paper on the machine the 

greatest possible width, or, as it is technically called, 
increasing the deckle width to the maximum. 

3. By reducing the number and length of shut downs 

through better planning of the orders. 

In the case under consideration, to establish correct speed 
standards past records were tabulated, showing the speed of 
the paper machine for each kind of paper run on the machines. 
It was found that with the same "furnish" (combination of 
raw materials from which the paper is made), the speeds of the 
machine, on orders run at different times, would vary as much 
as 50 per cent. This variation in speed was caused sometimes 
by variation in the stock, and particularly by lack of uniform- 
ity in the raw materials. 

As a result of this study and through the partial standard- 
ization of the beating of the stock, definite speeds for certain 

363 



3 6 4 



APPENDIX B 



grades of paper were established for each furnish. The stan- 
dard speeds of the paper machines which were established for 
one grade of paper are shown in Figure 79. The small circles 
in the figure show the actual speeds at which the machine was 
run for different weights of paper before the standards were 
set. The full lines indicate the speeds determined by time 
study. The speed of the machine varies with the weight of 




30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 
Figure 79. Standard Speeds for One Grade of Paper 



the paper, as is to be expected, because the heavier the paper, 
the slower the machine will have to run in order to get a uni- 
form product off the machine. The study also showed that 
a paper without a water mark could be run at very much faster 
speed than a paper which had to have a water mark; also that 
different kinds of water marks required different speeds. 

Many high-grade writing papers are cut out into sheets at 
the finishing end of the paper machine when they have to be 
put through the dry lofts in order to get the best quality of 



ECONOMIES OBTAINED IN PAPER-MAKING 365 

finished paper. The studies showed that the paper which was 
cut into a 24-inch length could not be run as fast on a ma- 
chine as a paper cut thirty-eight inches long. This is shown in 
the figure by the straight lines intercepting the curved lines. 

An illustration of determining the speed of the machine for 
this grade of paper, as given in Figure 79, will clarify what 
may seem to the casual observer quite complicated. 

Let us assume, for instance, that we wish to determine the 
speed of the paper machine for stock which weighs 50 pounds 
per ream (paper not water-marked — in other words "plain") 
and which is to be cut 34 inches long. The speed of the ma- 
chine can be determined directly by following the vertical line 
at the point marked 50 on the lower line of the figure to the 
straight line marked 34 inches, as this is the length of the sheet. 
The speed of the machine therefore is seen to be 165 feet 
per minute. If the sheet had been cut 38 inches long, the 
speed could have been increased to 182 feet. Again, if the 
paper had not been cut in sheets but had been taken off on a 
roll, the speed of the machine could have been increased to 
192 feet per minute. 

The increase in speed of the paper machine varied with 
the various grades of paper. In some cases at the start it was 
found that some of the speeds were increased as much as 30 
per cent, and in other cases even more, over the average of 
the old speeds. These increases are considerable when one 
realizes that the quality factor is a very large part of the mak- 
ing of paper. 



APPENDIX C 

STANDARD REQUIREMENTS AND QUALITY 

BONUS 

All work which is standardized through job standardiza- 
tion involves a combination of production and quality stan- 
dards. Usually the production standards are stressed, with 
quality taken care of by fixing definite percentage or by definite 
amounts of money by which, in the event that certain specified 
quality standards are not obtained, the production bonus is 
decreased or not allowed at all. Occasionally, however, the 
analyst is faced with an exceptional case, as is cited here. In 
this instance the attaining of quality standards are the big fac- 
tors, instead of the production factor, as in ordinary cases. 
The production factor is taken care of by reducing the num- 
ber of employees to a point where reasonably diligent efforts 
are necessary to get out the day's work. 

The problem of standardization in this case was unique in 
that it was not a question of producing in a given time the 
same product of a certain quantity, that must have a certain 
finish which determines the quality, it was a case in which it 
was necessary to take pulp colors that had been purchased 
from different color manufacturers and received in barrels and 
obtain from them batches of color, which would contain the 
same color value. These batches of color are used in the 
process of coating paper stock and a few minutes reflection 
will show the necessity of having the color uniform in shade 
so that when one lot is compared with another there shall be 
no disparity. There are many variables involved in this prob- 
lem, such as the varying shades of the paper itself, the amount 

366 



STANDARD REQUIREMENTS AND QUALITY BONUS 367 

of foreign matter in the color, as well as other ingredients used 
in the coating, and so on. These, however, are within certain 
limits and not as serious as the factor of pulp colors. 

The pulp colors when they came from the manufacturer 
showed such varying percentages of moisture that 100 pounds 
used for one mixture of color might have the same color value 
as 130 pounds used for the next mixture. Naturally it was 
difficult to retain any one shade, especially when several differ- 
ent pulps were mixed to give the shade required. 

The standards to this process were arrived at by carrying 
out a series of tests to determine the proper method of measur- 
ing, mixing, and handling the colors which were used in the 
orders actually being turned out by the mill and not done as an 
experimental proposition. In this way it was possible to de- 
termine the discrepancies and losses of all kinds under each 
particular condition. This required painstaking work on the 
part of everybody connected with the investigation. The in- 
structions, standards, and allowances as determined by the ana- 
lyst are appended. 

Schedule A 

Bonus Standards on Mixing Pulps 

1. Mixing Requirements for Pulps in Cans 

Every can, except Steel Blue Eakins, must be mixed once a day 

with a paddle. 
Every can from which pulp is to be sent downstairs on an 

order must be thoroughly mixed with hand paddle before 

material is taken out. 
From 10 to 15 cans will be tested or inspected daily. 
Cans tested must come within 100 per cent of the amount of 

water in the can at the start. Thus, 49 to 51 as against 50 

per cent standard. A special mixing will be allowed before 

sampling for this test. 
Cans inspected must show no pulp deposited on the bottom or 

sides of the can, no lumps and no water on top. This in- 



Allow 60 per cent of 
daily bonus 



368 APPENDIX C 

spection will be made shortly after the can is mixed in the 
morning, or an order from the Color Room Planning Depart- 
ment is filled. 

2. Bonus for Mixing of Pulps in Cans 

One can found with pulp deposits on 
bottom or sides, or in lumps, or 
found with water on top, or found to 
have 1 per cent more or less mois- 
ture than was originally in the can 
after the laboratory test 

~ r ■ -j . , , , jl Allow 30 per cent of 

lwo cans found not up to standard I , ., , 

J daily bonus 

Allow none of the 
Three cans found not up to standard j. daily bonus for mix- 
ing pulps 

Instruction for Mixing Pulps 

1. Pulp Mixing Is Easy 

// you get a smooth mix free from all lumps on the Brighton 

Mixer. 
If you get a prompt moisture test, add water accurately, and 

mix at once. 
// you keep the pulp in condition by mixing thoroughly once a 

day. 
// you scrape all pulp from the sides and bottom of the can 

before trying to mix. 

Detail Instructions 

2. Mixing Pulp from Barrels on Brighton Mixer 

Fill can from barrel. Put in only enough pulp to permit careful 
paddle mixing, without slopping, after water is added. 

Mix until smooth and free from all lumps, and until bottom 
corner is free from all deposits. 

Take sample from laboratory before Brighton Mixer is shut 
down. Do not skim the sample from the top but dip down into 
the pulp. 

Put sample into jar, cover tightly, and take to laboratory with- 
out delay. 



STANDARD REQUIREMENTS AND QUALITY BONUS 369 

Scrape pulp from mixer paddles into can, remove can and cover 

tightly. 
Wash paddles in a pail of water. 

3. Adding Water after Moisture Test 

Laboratory will report water to the nearest % pound. 
Weigh water accurately and add to can without slopping. 
Mix water into pulp at once, using hand paddles. 

4* Daily Mixing of Pulps 

Mix every pulp with hand paddle once a day as early in the 
morning as possible. 

5. Mixing before Filling Orders 

Get scales and dish ready and adjust the weights for tare before 
starting to mix. Get the dipper ready to use. 

Mix the pulp thoroughly with the paddle. 

Change from paddle to dipper quickly and weigh out the mate- 
rial. Put in the last few pounds slowly and get an accurate 
weight but lose no time on the bulk of the pulp. 

Fill the dipper each time by dipping well down into the can and 
sweeping the dipper through the can from one side to the 
other. 

Avoid spilling any pulp. 

If the dish must be filled a second time, as is the case for orders 
over fifty pounds, tare the dish a second time. 

Mix the pulp with the dipper before taking out the second lot. 

This care is necessary because the pulp starts to settle as soon as 
mixing is stopped. If the mixing is done first and a delay 
follows while the scales and dish are brought from across the 
room, etc., the material taken out will not be thoroughly mixed. 
In all cases if mixing is done and a delay follows, mix again 
before trying to fill an order. 

6. Special Mixing for a Check Moisture Test 

Check moisture tests will be made from time to time to de- 
termine if the bonus is earned. These tests will be made on 
pulp in cans partly used up or on pulp sent downstairs to. fill 
an order. 

In all cases the pulp from which the sample is to be taken will 
be given a special mixing in the Monitor. 



370 



APPENDIX C 



y. Method of Handling Paddle while Mixing 

Hold the paddle nearly perpendicular with right hand on top of 
the handle, and left hand about two feet below the top. 

Scrape the side of the can, holding the paddle perpendicular. 

Scrape the bottom of the can by pushing the paddle straight 
back and forth until the entire bottom is clean. 

Scrape the side of the can once more, making a special effort to 
clean out the lower corner. 

Stir the pulp. Start the pulp swirling around the can in a clock- 
wise motion, then change suddenly and stir in the opposite 
direction. Cover all parts of the can. 

Test the results of mixing by scraping the bottom and sides of 
the can to see if thick material collects on the end of the paddle, 
and by lifting a mass of pulp out on the paddle blade and 
letting it fall slowly back into the can. The pulp should be 
smooth and free from lumps and uniform in all parts of the 
can. 

8. Brighton Mixer vs. Hand Paddle 

The Brighton Mixer may be used in place of the wooden paddle 

at any time provided it does not slow down the work. 
The Brighton Mixer must be used on Steel Blue Eakins. 

Quality Requirements for Handling and Weighing Pulps 

A daily physical inventory will be taken on a number of 
cans of pulp, selected at random. The amount in the can 
must equal the amount started minus the orders filled within 
the following limits : 

A loss of 6 ounces for each day the can has been in the 
Monitor (this allows for the daily mixing). 

A loss of 6 ounces for each order taken from the can 
(this allows for the mixing before each order). 

A loss of 4 ounces for each order taken from the can. 

Example : A can of 350 pounds is filled on Monday. On 
Thursday it is inventoried for a bonus test. Orders have 
been filled as following during the 4 days: 50, 65, 40, 100, 10, 
and 5 pounds, or a total of 270 pounds. How much should 
then be left in the can? 

Answer : The allowable loss on 4 daily mixings is 4 X 6 
ounces = 1J/2 pounds. The allowable loss on 6 mixings be- 



STANDARD REQUIREMENTS AND QUALITY BONUS 371 

fore filling orders is 6 X 6 ounces = 2% pounds. The allow- 
able loss on weighing 6 orders is 6 X 4 ounces — 1 14 pounds. 
The total allowable loss is iy 2 plus 234 plus i>2 = S l A 
pounds. The amount in the can should range between a 
maximum of 80 pounds and a minimum of 74^ pounds. 

Bonus Payments 

For Handling and Weighing Pulps 

In case the cans weighed for the daily tests do not come 
within the limits specified by the quality requirements, the 
full bonus is not earned for the day. 

For only 1 can outside the limits specified, allow 75 per cent 

of the daily bonus. 
For 2 cans outside the limits specified, allow 40 per cent of 

the daily bonus. 
For 3 cans outside the limits specified, allow none of the 
daily bonus. 

Instructions for Weighing and Handling Pulps 
To Avoid Losses and Discrepancies 

To earn the bonus paid for accurate and careful handling for all 
pulps it is necessary to : 

1. Avoid losses of all kinds. 

2. Weigh all material accurately. 

1. Method of Avoiding Losses 

Don't fill pulp cans so full that you cannot stir without slopping 

after the water is added. 
Wipe the Brighton Mixer blades clean after grinding and see 

that all pulp gets back into the can (do not rinse the blades 

into pulp cans; rinse into pail of water). 
Put the sample for moisture test into a covered carton and 

avoid spilling. Scrape all pulp, sticking to the knives or 

spoon used for sampling, back into the can. 
Put back into the can the sample sent to the laboratory. Nearly 

all of it will be returned. Scrape the carton clean and be 

sure to get this pulp into the can it originally came from. 
Avoid spilling pulp or water when mixing in water ordered by 

laboratory, when mixing can daily or before filling orders. 



372 APPENDIX C 

Scrape the wooden paddle clean after mixing, by scraping on 

edge of can. 
Avoid spilling pulp when weighing orders. 

2. Method of Weighing Accurately So That the Actual Weight in the 

Can Will Be the Weight Shown on the Planning Department 
Books 
Get the weight right to start with. 

All cans will be weighed for tare and a list posted in the Monitor. 
Weigh every can of pulp after grinding. 

See that the carton of pulp for the laboratory moisture test 

is placed on the scales with the can. 
Enter the weight on the bin tag and on the mixing ticket. 
Weigh accurately the water ordered after the moisture test. 
Enter the weight of water on the bin tag and on the mixing 
ticket. 

3. The Weight of Pulp Plus Water Must Be Completely Accounted 

for If the Bonus Is to Be Earned 
Weigh each order accurately. 

See that the scales are clean. 

Weigh the small dish for tare. 

Set the weight accurately. 

Adjust the pulp in the dish until the scale beam balances ex- 
actly. 

If more than one dishful is needed, tare the dish before each 
weighing. 

Avoid mistakes due to shifting of weights by vibration; check 
the readings on the beam after the weighing is done. 

Report information to planning department clearly and ac- 
curately. 

Show can numbers from which pulp is taken. 

If an order is split between two cans, show the can numbers 
and the amount taken from each. 

If pulp is transferred from one can to another, be sure that 
the bin tags show what actually happened, and that the 
planning department is fully informed. 
Do the work as rapidly as possible but take time enough to do 

it right. 
If you are in doubt what to do under these instructions, take 

the matter up with Mr. Jones. 



APPENDIX D 

CONSTRUCTING HOMES UNDER SCIENTIFIC 
MANAGEMENT METHODS 

In applying scientific management principles to the con- 
struction of homes a peculiar problem was presented : each 
unit or home was comparatively small and the work required 
but a few men from different trades. Another peculiarity was 
that the homes were scattered over a large area. Some of 
them were in adjoining lots, others were a mile or more apart. 
Despite these facts the analyst was able to apply the same 
principles he had used in the construction of large units, such 
as concrete buildings in all kinds of industrial plants. 

In order to show the comparison between work done by day 
labor and by scientific management, several houses were 
selected where the work had been done by day labor under a 
very competent foreman who had in fact formerly subcon- 
tracted for his work at low costs. An equal number was 
selected to exemplify the scientific method. A comparison of 
the relative cost showed that the cost in the two houses built 
by day labor was as follows : 

i. Setting of first-floor joists cost 78 per cent more than 
with time work with bonus. 

2. Erecting first-floor curtain walls cost 26 per cent more 

than with time work with bonus. 

3. Erecting second-floor curtain walls cost 16 per cent 

more than with time work with bonus. 

4. Erecting first-floor subfloor cost 54 per cent more than 

with time work with bonus. 

5. Erecting second-floor subfloor cost 59 per cent more 

than with time work with bonus. 
373 



374 



APPENDIX D 



In the work of common laborers, such as trenching and 
backfilling for sewers and water pipe, large reductions in cost 
were also effected. For example, in a case where the digging 
was of an exceptionally hard and varied character, because 
of the stiff, tenacious clay, the following results were obtained : 

Unit Cost 
Unit Cost With Partial Bonus 

Operation No Bonus Work Work 

Excavation 48.0 cents per cu. yd. 34.8 cents per cu. yd. 

Pipelaying n.i cents per lin. ft. 4.5 cents per lin. ft. 

Backfilling 34.6 cents per cu. yd. 10.6 cents per cu. yd. 

These results were obtained by : 

1. Economical design and layout of construction opera- 

tions. 

2. Laying out in advance the method of handling the 

work to reduce to a minimum the quantity of con- 
struction material. 

3. Selection of the best tools and materials. 

4. Arranging the processes to simplify the work, and 

teaching the men how to do each process in the best 
way. 

5. Designating in advance the amount of work to be done 

by each man. 

6. Giving the men a definite money incentive to encourage 

them to do a large day's work. 

7. Eliminating the time ordinarily lost by workmen, in 

waiting for orders, waiting for foreman to lay out 
the work, waiting for materials, looking up tools, 
using improper tools. 

The general principles that may be applied to construction 
operations are similar to those which have proved so satis- 
factory in shop management. As Mr. Taylor so ably states : 



CONSTRUCTING HOMES 375 

Under scientific management the "initiative" of the work- 
men (that is, their hard work, their good-will, and their 
ingenuity) is obtained with absolute uniformity and to a 
greater extent than is possible under the old system ; and in 
addition to this improvement on the part of the men, the 
managers assume new burdens, new duties, and responsibili- 
ties never dreamed of in the past. The managers assume, for 
instance, the burden of gathering together all of the tradi- 
tional knowledge which in the past has been possessed by 
the workmen and then of classifying, tabulating, and re- 
ducing this knowledge to rules, laws, and formulae which are 
immensely helpful to the workmen in doing their daily work. 

Mr. Taylor groups this and three other types of duties 
which involve new and responsible burdens for the manage- 
ment under four heads as follows : 

First. They develop a science for each element of a man's 
work, which replaces the old rule-of-thumb method. 

Second. They scientifically select and then train, teach and 
develop the workman, whereas in the past he chose his own 
work and trained himself as best he could. 

Third. They heartily co-operate with the men so as to 
insure all of the work being done in accordance with the 
principles of the science which has been developed. 

Fourth. There is an almost equal division of the work 
and the responsibility between the management and the 
workmen. The management take over all work for which 
they are better fitted than the workmen, while in the past 
almost all of the work and the greater part of the responsi- 
bility were thrown upon the men. 

It is this combination of the initiative of the workmen, 
coupled with the new types of work done by the management, 
that makes scientific management so much more efficient than 
the old plan. 1 



F. W. Taylor, The Principles o. Scientific Management, ion, page 36. 



APPENDIX E 

SAVINGS MADE THROUGH STANDARDIZATION 
OF PULP MANUFACTURE 



The pulp mill is a unique illustration showing that the 
establishment of standards of quality of manufactured pulp 

results in a 
large saving in 
the materials 
used as well as 
a large increase 
i n production. 
This is shown 
in a concise way 
in Figure 80 
where the pro- 
duction and 



140 



130 



120 



110 



100 



90 



80 



70 





























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file 


ach 












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4w^ 




~Wood~ 



















Aug. 
1914 



Aug. 
1915 



Aug, 

1916 quantity of ma- 
Figure 80. Ratio Showing Decrease in Material Used terials used 
and Increase in Output due to Installation of Scientific 

Methods in a Pulp Mill previous to I 9 I 4 

are treated as 
units, this being the period prior to the starting of the 
standardization work. 



Processes of Sulphite-Pulp Manufacture 

To bring out more clearly the development in the pulp 
mill we will describe very briefly the process of making the 
sulphite pulp. 

Logs ranging in diameter from 4 to 12 inches, or even 
larger, and averaging about 6 inches, come to the mill in 4- 

376 



STANDARDIZATION OF PULP MANUFACTURE 



377 



foot lengths, and after being cut in two are barked, the bad 
knots removed and the pieces run through a chipper which 
produces chips about V* inch in length. From the chipper 
they are raised to bins over the digesters. The steel digesters, 
about 14 feet in diameter and 38 feet high, lined with acid- 
proof lining, are filled with the chips, which are then covered 
with bisulphite of lime liquor produced by a combination of 
sulphur gas and slaked lime. After cooking for a period 
of from 8 to 14 hours, varying partly with the character of 
material and partly with the judgment of the cook, the pulp 
is blown off into large tanks, being then of a consistency some- 
thing like coarse, wet, short-fibered cotton. This pulp is 
washed in various ways, screened, bleached, and run either 
into wet sheets or rolls or in some cases pumped to the paper- 
mill. 

As usually made the pulp is extremely variable, conse- 
quently no two cooks have exactly the same quality. The pur- 
pose of the standardization was to overcome this lack of 
uniformity and, as a consequence, to increase the production. 

Quality of Wood 

Studies were made of the characteristics of different kinds 
of wood, such as slabs, green wood, dry wood, peeled versus 
barked, and so on, to determine the relative economy and the 
quality of the pulp turned out. It was found through this 
investigation that sometimes the cheapest wood was the most 
expensive in terms of per ton of pulp. 

Bonus Installation 

The purpose of the analyses was to determine the proper 
materials and method to produce the desired results, then to 
put these into effect. The problem resolved itself into a 
development of standards and establishing a proper reward for 
meeting these standard requirements. 



378 



APPENDIX E 



In a pulpmill the first consideration of a bonus suggests the 
basing of bonuses on final output and quality of pulp. This 
is unfair to nearly all the men in the plant, because only a 
very few men are responsible for the output, the rest having 
simply a routine work to do to take care of the material which 
passes through their machines. Instead, therefore, of the 
uniformity scheme, each operation was considered by itself, 
and a bonus fixed to satisfy the requirement of individual 
responsibility. 

While the bonuses thus are applicable only to these individ- 
ual pulpmill operations, they illustrate by their diversity the 
general principles for bonus payment in many manufacturing 
departments operating under a continuous process. Very 
briefly the bonuses adopted in a pulpmill will be discussed. 

Bonuses in Woodroom 

The preparation and cutting up of the wood is a manu- 
facturing proposition, but nearly all the outputs are limited by 
the requirements of the digester. Only where the output is 
dependent on the men themselves, as in barking, is the remun- 
eration based on the quantity only. Even here, in fact, the 
amount of bonus is affected by the quality of the work done. 

The bonuses of the men who handle the sticks to the wood- 
room are based on uniformity of supply as recorded by a clock 
and in getting in the required quantity of wood on time. The 
bonuses of the men inspecting the logs on the carriers and 
throwing out the poor ones are reduced by the number of poor 
logs which they leave in and which the chipper men have to 
throw out. To balance this and also to prevent any collusion, 
the chipper men in turn are paid a bonus on every poor stick 
they throw out. Inspection of the work here as well as at other 
places further regulates the quality. As a matter of fact, in 
some of the work, such as that of the floor men and the men 
at the chip screens, a regular bonus is paid, provided the in- 



STANDARDIZATION OF PULP MANUFACTURE 



379 



spector, who makes his rounds at intervals, reports the work 
done as satisfactory. 

Acid-Making Bonus 

An acid-maker is paid a bonus for keeping the strength of 
free acid within certain limits for specified temperatures; 
another bonus for maintaining the required strength for S0 2 
gas, as shown by an automatic recorder; and still another for 
firing the sulphur furnaces within two minutes of the specified 
time. 

The men who slake the lime are paid a bonus for keeping 
the strength of the slaked lime to the specified Baume tests 
and maintaining uniformity in the temperature of the lime 
water. 

Standardization of Digesters 

The most important operation in pulp making is the cook- 
ing of the chips. The output of the digesters governs the 
production of the plant. Yet even here the bonuses were not 
based directly on the quantity produced. 

By the old-fashioned method of cooking and the method 
followed today by the majority of sulphite-pulp mills the 
manner of cooking is put up entirely to the cook. He is given 
certain general directions but is without sufficient apparatus 
to enable him to know what is going on in the digester. The 
first step was to provide not simply pressure gages, but record- 
ing thermometers showing by curves at all times the tempera- 
ture in the digester. By a careful study of the effect of 
different materials and conditions a standard temperature 
curve was decided upon, and also a standard curve of pressure. 

Reduction in Cooking Time 

Figure 81 shows the results of the standardization on the 
time of cooking. It will be seen by reference to the two curves 



3 8o 



APPENDIX E 



that before introducing standards for the digesters, the length 
of cooking varied anywhere from 83^2 to 12 hours. When 
the standard temperature and pressure curves were put into 



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13.0 
12.0 

11.0 

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9.0 
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Comparison of Cooking Time 
Before and After Establishment of Standards 






















Number, of Cook 



















1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 

Figure 8i. Cooking Times for Wood Pulp before and after Standardization 

effect the cooks were asked to follow them. The uniformity 
in the time of cooking immediately increased and a nearly 
uniform time of 1 1 hours was obtained. This improved the 
quality through uniformity but it did not increase the output. 
As a result of the great uniformity in the product produced, 
which entirely eliminated the poor cooks, it was found possible 
to reduce very materially the time of cooking below this later 
curve. 



Digester Bonuses 

It is sometimes considered that satisfactory increase in 
output and improvement in the morale of the men may be 
attained through the adoption of standard methods maintained 
by posting records of accomplishments for inspection by the 
workmen. In studying the question in the plant referred to 
here it was felt that, if, through their care, accuracy and 
attention, the men were able to maintain this uniform quality 
of pulp and thus reduce by the standard method the time of 
cooking they should receive not simply notice that one had 



STANDARDIZATION OF PULP MANUFACTURE 381 

attained 85 per cent while another attained 80 per cent but 
they should also have a definite reward for this work well 
and faithfully performed. Consequently bonuses based on the 
accurate following of directions were established. 

The temperature chart for each cooking is examined by 
an inspector in the office to determine how much it varies 
from the standard chart. Beginning 2^2 hours after the cook- 
ing has started, any deviation from the standard is noted by 
inspection at intervals throughout the remainder of the cook- 
ing. If the curve is maintained within 3 degrees of the 
standard limits, the cook is paid a bonus of 3 cents per hour; 
if maintained within 4 degrees of the standard, he receives 
2 cents an hour; within 5 degrees, 1 cent per hour; while if 
it runs more than this he receives no bonus at all on this 
division of his work. A second bonus is paid for getting the 
pressure up to the required point at the designated time. A 
third bonus is paid for blowing off the cooked pulp at the 
proper color. The cooking liquor grows darker as the cooking 
proceeds, and the exact time to blow off is governed by the 
color of the liquor, which can be drawn off through a cock. 
If the sample of liquor taken at time of blow-off is of the 
proper color, the cook receives a certain bonus; if the next 
color to it, a smaller bonus; if of the third color, a still smaller 
bonus. The total of the three bonuses constitutes the cook's 
total bonus for the day. In practice the plan works out very 
simply and requires very little labor because the number of 
cookings per day are comparatively few. 



APPENDIX F 

MACHINE RATES OR METHOD OF DISTRIBUTING 
OVERHEAD EXPENSE 

The analyst must always back up his conclusions by pro- 
ducing figures on the reduction in the unit cost of production. 

Unit cost refers to the sum total of elements entering into 
the cost of the product. These elements are materials, labor, 
and overhead expense. The unit cost is expressed in "cents 
per pound," "cents per thousand pieces" or some value per 
unit of measure, the establishment of which depends upon 
the nature of the industry. 

The analyst must take two factors into consideration when 
proving what has been accomplished. A comparison must be 
made of the cost before and after standards have been 
established. The accomplishments may be proved by showing 
a reduction in unit labor, unit material, or unit overhead costs, 
or a combination of these elements. 

It is usually comparatively easy to obtain the unit direct 
labor cost and the unit material cost. Such is not the case 
when the unit overhead cost is desired. Few concerns dis- 
tribute the overhead expense over the cost of the product. 
The analyst, therefore, must have a knowledge of accounting 
and be able to determine the proper method of distributing 
the overhead expense for the factory, department, or operation 
involved. 

There are many authoritative articles in print covering the 
distribution of overhead. The commonly known methods are 
machine rate, percentage of direct labor, man-hour and supple- 
mentary rate. 

382 



METHOD OF DISTRIBUTING OVERHEAD EXPENSE 383 

Overhead expense, frequently called burden, includes 
taxes, insurance, depreciation, superintendent, indirect labor, 
heating, lighting, salaries of planning department, fuel, and 
power. 

Distributing overhead by percentage of direct labor method 
is conceded by accountants to be generally inaccurate and often 
leads to absurd conclusions as to the cost of the product. The 
rate is determined by dividing the overhead charges of a 
definite period by the total direct labor for the same period. 
The unit overhead cost is determined by multiplying the unit 
direct labor cost by the percentage of direct labor rates. The 
unit cost is then obtained by totaling the unit material cost, 
the unit direct labor cost, and the unit overhead cost. 

The man-hour method - of distributing overhead, while 
better in many respects than the percentage of direct labor 
method, is not looked upon with favor, and properly so, because 
it is only reasonable that different rates should apply on differ- 
ent kinds of work, different machines and classes of men. The 
man-hour rate is determined by dividing the cost of indirect 
labor by the total number of direct labor hours. The unit 
overhead cost is obtained by multiplying the number of hours 
of direct labor by the man-hour rate. The unit cost is obtained 
by adding the unit material cost, the unit direct labor cost 
and the unit overhead cost. 

The supplementary rate methods of distributing burden is 
used generally in conjunction with the machine rate method. 
Its purpose is to have the production absorb the entire over- 
head for the period in which it is manufactured rather than 
charge the unabsorbed portion to profit and loss as would 
ordinarily be done. To obtain the supplementary rate — total 
the absorbed overhead, deduct the result from the total over- 
head charges for the period and divide the difference by the 
total overhead absorbed, the quotient is the supplementary 
rate. The unit cost is then obtained bv adding unit material 



3§4 



APPENDIX F 



cost, unit direct labor cost, unit overhead cost and unit supple- 
mentary overhead cost (unit overhead cost multiplied by 
supplementary rate). 

The machine rate method of distributing overhead is the 
most generally accepted and is recognized as the best means 
of obtaining true costs, hence it is correct for all practical 
purposes. 

It is anticipated that this illustration, taking the analysis 
step by step, will enable the novice to see what is required and 
will suggest a means to an end when a somewhat similar prob- 
lem confronts him. 

The first step in the process of setting machine rates for the 
industry under discussion was to determine the general over- 
head expense for a normal year. That expense was obtained 
from the company and while names may differ, according 
to the classification of accounts in different plants, the charges 
in any industry would be much the same in principle. The 
overhead expenses as enumerated herewith as well as the other 
values given in the example are relatively correct and not the 
exact values as shown by the books of the particular Company 
from which the figure were taken. Great care must be exer- 
cised to include the total expense on such items, for instance, 
which are partly bought on contract and partly manufactured 
at the plant such as power and light. 

Total heating $1,900.00 

Total lighting 400.00 

Electric lamps 125.00 

Insurance, and taxes 4,900.00 

Depreciation of buildings 2,500.00 

Watchman 1,000. 00 

Elevator man and helper 1,200.00 

Repairs to buildings 1,200.00 

Power chargeable to elevator 200.00 

Maintenance and repairs 500.00 

$13,925.00 



METHOD OF DISTRIBUTING OVERHEAD EXPENSE 385 

The next step was to ascertain the floor space of the factory- 
over which the general overhead expense was to be distributed. 
The total floor space, 85,500 square feet, was found to be 
divided in the following manner : 

Building No. 1 6 floors at 5,000 square feet = 30,000 square feet 
Building No. 2 3 floors at 4,000 square feet = 12,000 square feet 
Building No. 3 7% floors at 6,000 square feet = 43,500 square feet 

Total 85,500 square feet 

$13,925.00 (overhead expense) 



85,500 (floor space) 



= $0,163 (rate per square foot) 



The company should consider carefully at this point each 
of the factors making up the overhead expense and determine 
which of these items and by what amount is likely to increase 
or decrease, if any. In this case the company anticipated an 
increase in the cost of the overhead expense and raised the 
figured rate of $.163 to $.20 : 

$0.20X85,500 (square feet) =$17,100 Estimated Charges 

By dividing the general overhead expense by the total 
square feet, a rate of $.163 per square foot was reached. The 
management, anticipating a higher cost of overhead expense 
in the next period, decided to increase the rate to $.20 per 
square foot. Thus they were prepared to absorb $17,100.00 
of general overhead charges. 

The third step, viz., that of determining the factory over- 
head, gave the following results : 

Space occupied by general offices, shipping, and 
receiving rooms = 15,000 square feet at $0.20. . $3,000.00 

Space occupied by factory = 70,500 square feet at 
$0.20 14,100.00 



General overhead expense $17,100.00 



386 APPENDIX F 

Factory Overhead 

Factory expense: 

Salary of superintendent $5,000.00 

Salaries of planning department.... 8,500.00 

Janitors, cleaners, etc ' 1,200.00 

Sundry manufacturing expense 2,800.00 

Power 7,133.00 

Telephone service 375- 00 

$25,008.00 

Proportion of general overhead expenses 14,100.00 

Factory overhead $39,108.00 

$39,108.00 (factory overhead expense) 

— : = $o.5SS rate per square foot 

70,500 (factory space) v 

Analysis of the floor space shows that 70,500 square feet 
was occupied by the factory. By taking $.20 as a basis of 
expense a square foot the portion of general overhead expense 
which had to be absorbed by the factory was equivalent to 
$14,100. Factory expense of $25,008 added, gave factory 
overhead of $39,108, or at the rate of $.555 per square foot. 

The next step was to determine how much floor space was 
to be charged to each department. The factory occupied 
70,500 square feet of which 60,200 square feet was used by 
six productive departments, and the balance, 10,300 square feet, 
was occupied by the planning and storage departments. 

The productive departments had to absorb the expense 
which would be applied to the floor space used by the planning 
and storage departments if it was occupied by productive 
units. To each productive department had to be added its 
proportion of this non-productive area. 

10,300 (square feet planning and storage) 

: =17.1 per cent propor- 

00,200 (square feet productive) .- c .. 

v n r ' tion 01 non-produc- 

tive area to be charged 
to productive depart- 
ments. 



METHOD OF DISTRIBUTING OVERHEAD EXPENSE 387 

As the planning and storage departments occupied 10,300 
square feet and the productive departments 60,200 square 
feet the proportion to be absorbed by each productive depart- 
ment was 1 7. 1 per cent. 

Division of Floor Space 

Total Proportion 
Square Square of Floor Total 
Feet Feet Space Used Footage 

Occu- for Plan- Charged 
pied ning and 
Storage 
Signal Department : 

Building No. 3 15,500, 

Building No. 1 3,400 18,900 3,200 22,100 

Preparation Department : 

Building No. 3 6,000 

Building No. 1 5,8oo 11,800 2,000 13,800 

Case-Making Department : 

Building No. 3 5,200 

Building No. 1 5, 800 11,000 1,900 12,900 

Print Department : 

Building No. 3 6,000 

Building No. 2 1,500 7,500 1,300 8,800 

Calender Department : 

Building No. 1 7,500 

Building No. 2 1,000 8,500 1,500 10,000 

Gold Stamping Department : 

Building No. 1 2,500 2,500 400 2,900 

Total Square Feet — 

Absorbed 60,200 10,300 70,500 

Thus it is seen that a productive department such as that 
of the signal department was charged not only with the space 
occupied by itself, 18,900 square feet, but in addition with 
3,200 square feet its proportion of space required for planning 
and storage departments, or a total of 22,100 square feet. 

To illustrate the method of establishing the rate per square 



3 88 



APPENDIX F 



foot within a department the signal department has been 
selected. In the distribution of floor space this department 
was charged with 22,100 square feet. Multiplying this area 
by the factory overhead rate of $.555, the factory overhead 
to be absorbed by the signal department was found to be 
$12,265.50. To this must be added the indirect labor charged 
in the signal department which amounts to $3,304, giving a 
total department overhead expense of $15,569.50. 

Signal Department 

Factory overhead = 22,100 square feet 
at $-555 P er square foot $12,265.50 

Departmental expense : 

2 Inspectors $2,000.00 

1 Moveman 704.00 

I Machine tender 600.00 3,304.00 

Departmental overhead $15,569.50 

The next operation was to determine the square feet 
occupied by machines within the signal department. To the 
area actually required by each machine was added the space 
necessary for storage of materials at the machine. 

The total floor space required by machines was 15,200 
square feet. The balance 6,900 square feet was used for aisles 
and general storage. Therefore, instead of distributing the 
departmental overhead to the total area of 22,100 square feet 
charged to the signal department it was distributed over the 
productive space amounting to 15,200 square feet, resulting 
in a rate of $1,024 per square foot in this department. 

The same method was employed in setting rates on the 
floor space for the preparatory department with 13,800 square 
feet, the case-making department with 12,900 square feet, the 
print department with 8,800 square feet, the calender depart- 
ment with 10,000 square feet, and the gold department with 
2,900 square feet. 



METHOD OF DISTRIBUTING OVERHEAD EXPENSE 



389 



ine Symbol 


Square Feet 


A 1 


810 


B 4 


300 


C 10 


60 


D 1 


270 


E 1 


300 


E 2 


200 


E 3 


200 


E 8 


1,050 


E 9 


1,050 


E 10 


1,050 


E 11 


1,050 


E 14 


1,000 


F 61 


800 


F 71 


800 


F 81 


850 


F 82 


850 


G 1 


4,500 


H 2 


60 



$15,569.50 (department overhead) 
15,200 (square feet) 



15,200 Square feet of 
space occupied 

$1,024 rate per square foot 
in signal department 



After the rate per square foot was established in the signal 
department the next move was to set a rate for each machine. 
The rate per square foot multiplied by the number of square 
feet which the machine occupied plus the estimated deprecia- 
tion gave the amount of expense to be absorbed annually by 
each machine. Machines E8, E9, and Eio are taken to illus- 
trate the method of figuring. 



E 8 



(Overhead rate) $1,024 X 1,050 (square feet) . . $1,075.20 
Depreciation (10%) of cost $2,000.00 200.00 

Expense to be absorbed $1,275.20 



390 APPENDIX F 

Eg 

(Overhead rate) $1,024 X 1-050 (square feet) . . $1,075.20 
Depreciation (10%) of cost $3,300.00 330.00 

Expense to be absorbed $1,405.20 

E 10 

(Overhead rate) $1,024 X 1-050 (square feet) . . $1,075.20 
Depreciation (10%) of cost $2,300.00 230.00 

$1,305.20 

The last step was to establish the machine rate per hour. 
This was done by dividing the amount of expense to be 
absorbed by the per cent of time it was estimated the machine 
would be in operation and then by the possible working hours 
for the year; the result gave the estimated rate per hour. 



90% 



$1,275.20 (expense) 

——. — - — = $0,506 Estimate rate per hour 

(times) X 2,800 (hours) 



Expense Per cent Estimated Established 

to be of Time Rate Rate 

Machine Description Make Absorbed in Use per Hour per Hour 

E8 Punch Press Bliss $i, 275-20 90 $0,506 $0.55 

Eo Punch Press Bliss 1,405.20 80 0.628 0.65 

Eio Punch Press Bliss 1,305.20 90 0.518 0.55 

To expedite clerical work it is advisable to set the hourly 

machine rate in units of five cents as was done in this illustra- 
tion. 



INDEX 



Abnormal time values, 191 
Accumulative method, stop-watch, 

168 
Allowances (See "Variable factors") 
Analyst, 

and instructor, 288 

memory, power of, 1 78 

personnel requirements, 59-73, 124- 

126 
position while making test, 164 
Application of standards, 44, 133, 
281-295 (See also " Operations " ; 
"Tests") 
construction work, 317 
Average time values, 190 



Base rate, 235 

Bonus, 53, 233, 237 

allowance for, when starting, 293 
daily analysis of time work with, 

304 
Form, 305, 306 
figuring proficiency, 308 
quality bonus, 366-372 



Charts (See "Graphic presentation") 
Checking methods, 218-227 
Company policies, 335 
Constants, 197 

Continuous method, stop-watch, 165 
Control, in scientific management, 
320 



Co-operation, enlisting, 108-123 
Correct standards, 134 
Costs, 

factors, 20 

of orders, 334 

reduction, 18 

standardization decreases, 270, 274 
Course of training, 74-107, 286-289 

advantages of, 83 

drills and exercises for, 92-98 

executives, 82 

field work, 104 

keeping of records, 87-92 

reading for, 99 

slide rule, 100-104 

staff organization, 74 

stop-watch, 84 

tabulations, 105 

use of tools, 84 
Curves, 

exterpolation, 204 

good time as check, 201 

plotting of, 160, 199 
Form, 161-163, 200-201 
Cycle method, stop-watch, 170 



Daily analysis of machine time, 302 
Daily bonus report, 304 

Form, 305, 306 
Daily production record, 293, 298 

Form, 299, 300 
Damages, method of handling, 263 
Data, 

filing of, 267 

uses of, 267 
Day work, 54, 232 



391 



392 



INDEX 



Decimals, three places, 185 
Delays, 191, 205 

method of handling, 263 

recording, 292 

testing causes of, 223 
Departmental organization, 74 
Disputes, standardization as a basis 

for mediation, 337-349 
Drills in taking time studies, 92 



E 



Economy methods, 

decided during preliminary study, 
136 

demonstration of, 56 

explanation of standards, 270 

illustration of time saving, 50 

materials worked upon, 138 

obtained in paper making, 363-365 

overhead reduction, 13 

reduction of fatigue, 213 

time saving, 12 

waste material, 1 1, 21 
Elements, 

as a factor in determining standard 
time, 190 

defined, 155 

tabulation of, 180 

time value of , 177-189 

variable factors in, 182-188 
Employee representation, 341 
Employees, 

allowance for bonus when starting, 

293 
as a factor, 23, 153 
co-operation of, 111, 155 
explanation of standardization to, 

270, 276 
fatigue, 208, 210-217 
inattention, 191 
instructing, 186, 286 
personal equation of, 182 



Employees — Continued 

rates of, 228 

skilled, 137, 154 

standardization as a basis for 
mediation, 337 

starting on standards, 283 

study of , 136 

variable factors among, 182 
Employment department as a factor 

in reducing fatigue, 211 
Engineer instruction, 287 
Equations, use of, 40 
Equipment, 139 

factor of, 22, 153 
Errors, 191 

value of, 79 
Executives, training in job standard- 
ization, 82 
Explanations, 270-281 
Exterpolation, 204 



Factors, 18-31 (See also "Variable 
factors") 

co-ordination of, 26 

in determining standard time, 190- 
209 
Fatigue, 

allowance for, 209, 210-217 

percentage allowance for, 215 
Field work, training in, 104 
Filing of data, 267 
Foreman, 

co-operation of, 115 

instructions to, 288 
Formulae, 

for standard time, 190, 264 

running time on machines, 301 

use of equations, 40 
Functions, 325 

co-ordination of, 6 



INDEX 



39; 



Good time values, 195, 201 
Graphic presentation, 91 

curves, 160, 199 

Form, 161-163, 200-201 

for perpetuating standards, 296 
Group work, 142 
' ' Guess ' ' allowance, 205 



H 



Hours of labor, element of fatigue, 
211 



Inattention, 191 
Industrial engineer, 8, 10 
Inspection for quality, 122 
Instruction cards, 244, 331 
Instructions, 286-289, (See "Course 
of training") 

answering questions, 290 

engineer, 287 

preliminary study, 148 

written, 43 
Instructor, 287 

Investigator, personnel requirements, 
59-73 



Layout of operation, 142 
fatigue element, 213 

M 

Machines, as a factor, 153 

daily time analysis, 302 
Form, 303 

for making time studies, 172 

rate method of overhead distribu- 
tion, 382-390 

running time, 181, 299-304 

setting standards for, 143 
Maintenance of standards, 44, 289, 

291, 296-310 
Management, 

co-operation of, needed, 108-123 

obtaining approval of, 275 

scientific, 5, 311-326 
Manufacturing department, 321 

relation to sales, 327 
Materials, 

handling of, 138 

waste of, 11, 21 
Mechanical aids, 165-176 

to reduce fatigue, 212 

N 

Necessities of life, 

time allowance for, 191, 208 



Job analysis, 

relation between phases of, and 

time study, 129 
specialist required for, 59-73 



Labor disputes, standardization as a 
basis for mediation, 337-349 

Large-scale production, requirements, 
4 



Operation, (See also "Tests") 
analysis of, 156 

imperfect, 160 

sample, 157 
defined, 155 
equipment, 139 
group work, 142 
layout of, 142 
reeling and inspecting coated 

paper, 351-362 



394 



INDEX 



Operation — Continued 
summarizing, 246-263 
symbols for, 158 

Form, 159 
useless, 49 

value of analysis of, 113 
variable factors, 126 
Orders, 
control of by various departments, 

327-336 
estimating cost of, 334 
routine for, 323, 331 
scientific management, 327-336 
Organization, 
Chart, 7 
job standardization department, 75 
Over-all method, stop-watch, 166 
Overhead distribution, machine rate 
method, 382-390 



Pay-roll, 

analysis data entered on, 307 

figuring, 234 
Perpetuation of standards, 296-310 
Personal equation, among employees, 

182 
Personnel, 

requirements, 59-73 

training of , 74-107 
Phases for making studies, 32, 128 
Piecework, 232 
Planning board, 323 

Form, 324 
Planning department, 321 

reports, 331 

work of, 331 
Plant capacity, 329 
Policies of company, 335 
Preliminary study, 32, 128, 136-152 

employee, 136 

factor of saving, 136 

group work, 142 



Preliminary study — Continued 
instructions for, 148 
layout of operation, 142 
production data, 145 
setting standards, 142 
wage data, 145 
Procedure, 32-47 

analyzing the studies and setting 

the standards, 131 
applying the standards, 44, 133, 

281-295 
enlisting co-operation, 108-123 
preliminary work, 32, 128, 136- 

152 
relative time for phases, 128 
routine after standardization 

established, 296-310 
summarizing, 243-269 
taking time studies, 130, 153-176 
time required for study, 129 
Process department, 321 
Production, 
actual, 299 
daily, record of, 293, 298 

Form, 299, 300 
data for, 145, 328 
factors, 20 
increase, 18 
requirements and quality bonus, 

366-372 
standard for standard running 

time, 300 
standardization increases, 270 
Proficiency, 

calculation for, 308 
weekly analysis, 308 



Quality of product, 
factor of, 25, 137 
inspection of, 122 
maintaining of by standards, 120 
requirements and bonus, 366-372 



INDEX 



395 



Rates, 

base rate, 235 

bonus system, 233, 237 

company policy statement, 239 

day work, 232 

denned, 228 

effect of standardization on, 270 

explanation of, to employees, 276 

figuring pay-roll, 234 

notification of, 276 

piecework, 232 

should fit the operation, 229 

wage system, 229 
Reading, books for students in train- 
ing, 99 
Records, 89 

daily analysis, 302-306 

daily production, 293, 296 
Form, 299, 300 

exercises in reading, 95 

graphic presentation, 91 

instruction cards, 244 
• uses of, 267 

weekly analysis, 306 
Repetitive method, stop-watch, 168 
Reports, 

graphic, 297 

plant capacity, 329 

sales and production, 327 
Rest periods, 214 
Results of standardization, 48-58 
Routine, 

establishment of, 296 

orders, 325-326 

sheet used in planning department, 
322 
Running time, 299-304 



Sales department, 

knowledge of plant capacity, 329 



Sales department — Continued 

relation to manufacturing, 327 

reports, 327 

service of, 332 
Saving (See " Economy methods ") 
Scientific management, 5, 311-326 

defined, 313 
Simultaneous studies, 128 
Slide rule, 100-104 
Specialization, 9 
Staff, training of, 74-107 
Standard time, 38 

abnormal values, 191 

allowances for delay and fatigue, 
206 

average values, 190 

checking of, 218-227 

constants, 197 

determining, 190-209 

elements of, 190 

exceeding, 218 

failure to make, 220 

fatigue allowance, 208, 210-217 

formula for determining, 190, 264 

good values, 195, 201 

graphic presentation, 199-205 

" guess " allowance, 205 

time values, 190 

variable factors, 197 
Standardization, 

defined, 18-31, 314 

history of, 3 

records for, 296-310 

researches by Dr. Taylor, 10 

results, 16, 48-58, 311-326 

returns dependent upon sales, 

327 
Standards, 

application of, 44, 133, 281-295 
checking of, 221 
completing, 295 
correctness of, 134 
explanation of to employees, 270- 
276 



396 



INDEX 



Standards — Continued 

formulation of, 38 

introducing new, 44 

maintaining quality, 120 

maintenance of, 44, 289, 291, 
296-310 

setting of, 131, 143 

starting employees, 283 

summarizing, 243-269 

temporary, 226 

variables in, 126 

written instructions for, 43 
Stop-watch, 

accumulative method, 168 

continuous method, 165 

cycle method, 1 70 

decimal, 85 

exercises in use of, 92 

handling of, 165 

over-all method, 166 

repetitive method, 168 

use of, 84 
Summarizing, 243-269 

actual operation, 246-263 
Superintendent, co-operation of, 112 
Surveys, preliminary, 34 
Symbols, 158 
Form, 159 



Tabulations, 

elements, 180 

practice work in, 105 

sheet, 

Form, 106 

variable factors, 198 
Taking time studies, 130, 153-176 
Taylor, F. W., 5, 188 
"Ten Don't Commandments," 79 
Test, (See also "Operations") 

bleaching, 50 

building construction, 373-375 

color mixing, 366-372 



Test — Continued 

equipment, 139 

Ford starters, 315 

laying cloth, 157 

paper mill, 56 

position of observer while making, 
164 

preliminary studies, 136-152 

procedure, 32-47 

production, 147 

pulp manufacture, 376-381 

shoe- shining, 26-31 

time saving methods, 50 

truck operation, 140 

walking, 198 

weaving wire cloth, 272 
Time, (See also "Standard time") 

actual running, 299-304 

daily analysis of machine, 302 
Form, 303 

element of, in analysis, 124 

required for phases of study, 128 

unit of measurement, 19, 38 
Time curves, 

Form, 161-163 
Time stamp, 173 
Time studies, 

analyzing, 37 

board for, 87 

equipment for, 35 

method of taking, 35 

records, 89 
uses of, 267 

relation between phases of and job 
analysis, 129 

sheet for, 87, 178 
Form, 88, 179 

taking of, 130, 153-176 
Time values, 

abnormal, 191 

analyzing, 189 

as a factor in standard time, 190 

good, 195, 201 

of elements, 177 



INDEX 



397 



Time values — Continued 

of employees, 182-189 

of machines, 181 
Tools, 

slide rule, 100-104 

time-study board, 87 

time-study sheet, 87 
Form, 88 

training in use of, 84 
Training (See "Course of training") 



Variable factors, 126 
among employees, 182 
comparison basis, 198 
delays, 205 
fatigue, 208, 210-217 
figuring to three decimal places, 

185 
in determining standard time, 197 
in performance of the element, 191 
minor, 220 
personal equation, 186 



Variable factors — Continued 
plotting curves for, 199-202 
Form, 200-201 

W 

Wages, 

analysis as a basis for equitable 

payments, 114 
bonus plans, 53, 233, 237 
company policy, 239 
data, 145 

data for pay-roll, 307 
day work, 54, 232 
defects, 53 

explaining extra pay, 279 
figuring pay-roll, 234 
piecework, 232 
standardization increases, 270, 

273 
Waste (See "Economy methods") 
Weekly analysis, 306 

Form, 307 
Workmen (See "Employees") 



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